Instrument for measuring home cooking skills in primary health care

Aline Rissatto Teixeira Júlia Souza Pinto Camanho Flavia da Silva Miguel Helena Carvalho Mega Betzabeth Slater About the authors

ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE

To develop and validate an instrument for measuring the home cooking skills of health professionals involved with guidelines for promoting adequate and healthy food in primary health care.

METHODS

This is a methodological study with a psychometric approach, carried out in the city of São Paulo between January and November 2020, to develop and validate a self-applied online instrument. The data of the 472 participants were presented by descriptive statistics. Content validation was performed by expert judgment using the two round Delphi technique and empirical statistics for consensus evidence. Exploratory factor analysis was used for construct validation and reliability analysis, and the model adjustment rates and composite reliability were analyzed.

RESULTS

The instrument presented satisfactory content validity for CVRc indices and 𝜅 in the two rounds of the Delphi technique. After the factor analysis, the final model of the Primary Health Care Home Cooking Skills Scale presented 29 items with adequate factorial loads (> 0.3). Bartlett’s and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin’s (KMO) tests of sphericity performed in exploratory factorial analysis suggested interpretability in the correlation matrix, the parallel analysis indicated four domains and explained variance of 64.1%. The composite reliability of the factors was adequate (> 0.70) and the H-index suggested replicable factors in future studies. All adjustment rates proved to be adequate.

CONCLUSIONS

The Primary Health Care Home Cooking Skills Scale presented evidence of validity and reliability. It is short and easy to apply and will make it possible to reliably ascertain the need for qualification of the workforce, favoring the planning of actions and public policies of promotion of adequate and healthy food in primary health care.

Cooking; Knowledge; Psychometrics, instrumentation; Food and Nutrition Education; Primary Health Care

INTRODUCTION

Home cooking skills (HCS) comprise actions such as menu planning, selection, mixing, cutting and cooking of food, the ability to perform tasks whilst cooking and confidence for culinary practices11. McGowan L, Caraher M, Raats M, Lavelle F, Hollywood L, McDowell D, et al. Domestic cooking and food skills: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2017;57(11):2412-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1072495
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. They are related to environmental and economic implications22. Castro IRR. Challenges and perspectives for the promotion of adequate and healthy food in Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2015;31(1):1-3. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311XPE010115
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and are valued by the Guia Alimentar para a População Brasileira (Food Guidelines for the Brazilian Population)33. Ministério da Saúde (BR), Secretaria de Atenção Primária à Saúde, Departamento de Atenção Básica. Guia alimentar para a população brasileira. 2. ed. Brasília, DF; 2014 [cited 2020 Dec 7]. Available from: https://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/publicacoes/guia_alimentar_populacao_brasileira_2ed.pdf
https://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/publicaco...
as an expression of cultural and social aspects. The document recognizes cooking as a strategic practice to promote adequate and healthy food (AHF), aiming to reduce the choice of ultra-processed foods, which are associated with overweight, obesity, cancer and other diseases44. Pagliai G, Dinu M, Madarena MP, Bonaccio M, Iacoviello L, Sofi F. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and health status: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Nutr. 2021;125(3):308-18. https://doi.org10.1017/S0007114520002688
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,55. Askari M, Heshmati J, Shahinfar H, Tripathi N, Daneshzad E. Ultra-processed food and the risk of overweight and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Int J Obes (Lond). 2020;44(10):2080-91. https://doi.org10.1038/s41366-020-00650-z
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. Therefore, recognition of cooking should be paramount in food and nutrition education actions22. Castro IRR. Challenges and perspectives for the promotion of adequate and healthy food in Brazil. Cad Saude Publica. 2015;31(1):1-3. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311XPE010115
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.

In Brazil, the guidelines of AHF are located substantially within the scope of primary health care (PHC), the first level of care and link of subjects with the Unified Health System. PHC professionals play a relevant role in promoting food and nutrition education actions involving culinary practices, such as dissemination of recipes, workshops, guided visits to open-air markets, home visits and sensory exploration of food66. França CJ, Carvalho VCHS. Estratégias de educação alimentar e nutricional na Atenção Primária à Saúde: uma revisão de literatura. Saude Debate. 2017;41(114):932-48. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-1104201711421
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. Such actions allow health workers to convey technical knowledge to the daily lives of the subjects, therefore it is important that those workers develop their home cooking skills77. Menezes MFG, Maldonado LA. Do nutricionismo à comida: a culinária como estratégia metodológica de educação alimentar e nutricional. Rev HUPE. 2015;14(3):82-90. https://doi.org/10.12957/rhupe.2015.19950
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.

An accurate diagnosis of these skills is essential to promote workforce qualification and plan public health actions and policies on the subject, and it relies on the use of valid and reliable instruments, based on robust psychometric criteria88. Morgado FFR, Meireles JFF, Neves CM, Amaral ACS, Ferreira MEC. Scale development: ten main limitations and recommendations to improve future research practices. Psicol Reflex Crit. 2017;30:3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-016-0057-1
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,99. Reichenheim M, Bastos JL. O quê, para quê e como? Desenvolvendo instrumentos de aferição em epidemiologia. Rev Saude Publica. 2021;55:40. https://doi.org/10.11606/s1518-8787.2021055002813
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. Teixiera et al.1010. Teixeira AR, Bicalho D, Slater B, Lima TM. Systematic review of instruments for assessing culinary skills in adults: what is the quality of their psychometric properties? PLoS One. 2021;16(8):e0235182. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235182
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.023...
identified and critically analyzed the psychometric quality of 12 Brazilian and international instruments for measuring cooking skills in adults. The psychometric attributes of those instruments were considered insufficient, with unsatisfactory results based on statistical criteria or methodological inadequacies. Two of the studies were Brazilian: Jomori1111. Jomori MM, Vasconcelos FAG, Bernardo GL, Uggioni PL, Proença RPC. The concept of cooking skills: a review with contributions to the scientific debate. Rev Nutr. 2018;31(1):119-35. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-98652018000100010
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performed a cross-cultural adaptation of an instrument based on the program Cooking with a Chef, from Clemson University. The results of a part of the scale of this instrument were unsatisfactory for reliability. Martins et al.1212. Martins CA, Baraldi LG, Scagliusi FB, Villar BS, Monteiro CA. Cooking Skills Index: development and reliability assessment. Rev Nutr. 2019;32:e180124. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9865201932e180124
https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9865201932e...
developed a cooking confidence scale for parents of schoolchildren. The authors evaluated the internal consistency, stability and content validity of the instrument, but did not report agreement rates between experts and procedures for construct validity.

Thus, there is a strong need to develop a new instrument for assessing home cooking skills aimed at Brazilian health professionals involved with guidelines for promoting adequate and healthy food in PHC, based on psychometric criteria that follow methodological rigor to determine its validity and reliability recommended in the scientific literature.

METHODS

This is a methodological study with a psychometric approach1313. Furr RM, Bacharach VR. Psychometrics: an introduction. 2. ed. London (UK): SAGE Publications; 2014. conducted between January and November 2020.

This study was approved by the research ethics committee of University of São Paulo (CAAE 15194819.8.0000.5421, No. 3,502,315) and by the co-participating institution of the São Paulo Municipal Health Department (SMS-SP) (No. 3,585,369). The participants were informed of the objectives of the study and confidentiality of the data through an informed consent form.

In the prototype stage, a working group was created with nine members of both sexes and from different Brazilian states (São Paulo, Mato Grosso, Pará and Minas Gerais). They were nutrition and gastronomy majors from the Faculdade de Saúde Pública of Universidade de São Paulo (FSP-USP) involved with culinary approach disciplines and PhD researchers with experience in the elaboration and validation of research instruments to systematically develop the instrument.

To define the theoretical domains and items of the first version of the instrument proposed in this study, the following were considered: (a) professional experience and culinary experience of the group; (b) exploration of theoretical framework on HCS1414. Coluci MZO, Alexandre NMC, Milani D. Construção de instrumentos de medida na área da saúde. Cienc Saude Colet. 2015;20(3):925-36. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015203.04332013
https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015203...
(c) systematic review to identify and analyze psychometric properties of instruments that assessed the home cooking skills of adults1010. Teixeira AR, Bicalho D, Slater B, Lima TM. Systematic review of instruments for assessing culinary skills in adults: what is the quality of their psychometric properties? PLoS One. 2021;16(8):e0235182. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235182
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.023...
. The domains, items and response formats of the instruments identified in this review were discussed by the research group for the construction of the prototype.

The construction of the initial set of items and response formats of the prototype version of the instrument, entitled Primary Health Care Home Cooking Skills Scale (PHCHCSS), followed the quality recommendations proposed by DeVellis1515. DeVellis RF. Scale development: theory and applications. 4. ed. Thousand Oaks, Ca: SAGE Publications; 2017. (Applied Social Research Methods Series; nº 26)..

The next phase, the psychometric phase, consisted of three stages. The first stage featured experts from various professional levels, including university professors, researchers and nutrition and gastronomy professionals from Brazil1616. Lynn MR. Determination and quantification of content validity. Nurs Res. 1986;35(6):382-5.. A number of participants between three and 10 was considered sufficient1717. Gilbert GE, Prion S. Making sense of methods and measurement: Lawshe’s Content Validity Index. Clin Simul Nurs. 2016;12(12):530-1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecns.2016.08.002
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The two-round Delphi method 1818. Boulkedid R, Abdoul H, Loustau M, Sibony O, Alberti C. Using and reporting the Delphi method for selecting healthcare quality indicators: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2011;6(6):e20476. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020476
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.002...
was used. Experts completed online questionnaires, with semi-structured questions of sociodemographic characterization and evaluation of the items and theoretical domains of the instrument built in the prototype phase. They proposed improvements, inclusion and exclusion of items, adequacy of the options of the instrument scale, and responded to a scale Likert of agreement (1 = strongly disagree and 4 = strongly agree) to evaluate each item for:

  • Clarity: Was the item written in such a way that the concept is understandable and adequately expresses what is to be measured?

  • Pertinence: Does the item reflect the concepts involved in the domain and is it adequate to achieve the proposed objectives?

  • Relevance: Is the item important for the construction of the domains that are the focus of the research scale?

The first round of the panel took place between March 26 and April 29, 2020 and featured eight experts. The research group assessed the comments provided, excluded irrelevant and non-pertinent items, made adjustments to those considered unclear and included suggested items for a better coverage of the phenomenon. The instrument was re-submitted to the experts for evaluation after the modifications. Second round, started on May 28, 2020, lasted 30 days and featured seven experts.

The characteristics of the study participants were presented by descriptive statistics. The Critical Content Validity Ratio - CVRc was used to statistically analyze the validity of each attribute of the items and domains1919. Wilson FR, Pan W, Schumsky DA. Recalculation of the critical values for Lawshe’s Content Validity Ratio. Meas Eval Couns Dev. 2012;45(3):197-210. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748175612440286
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and the Kappa coefficient (k) was calculated to evaluate the agreement between experts on each item2020. Landis JR, Koch GG. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics. 1977;33(1):159-7 of the two rounds of the panel. Items with CVRc > 0.05 and k ≥ 0,602020. Landis JR, Koch GG. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics. 1977;33(1):159-7 were retained1919. Wilson FR, Pan W, Schumsky DA. Recalculation of the critical values for Lawshe’s Content Validity Ratio. Meas Eval Couns Dev. 2012;45(3):197-210. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748175612440286
https://doi.org/10.1177/0748175612440286...
. The content validity index (CVI) was also used to analyze the validity of the instrument as a whole2121. Pedrosa I, Suárez-Álvarez J, García-Cueto E. Content validity evidences: theoretical advances and estimation methods. Acción Psicol. 2014;10(2):3-18. https://doi.org/10.5944/ap.10.2.11820
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. The result > 0.8 was considered acceptable2222. Davis LL. Instrument review: getting the most from a panel of experts. Appl Nurs Res. 1992;5(4):194-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0897-1897(05)80008-4
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.

The second stage was the pre-test phase, in which professionals from a health center in the city of São Paulo, with similar characteristics to the research population of the project, tested the usability of PHCHCSS. The pre-test participants were not part of the construct validity sample and reliability analysis of the instrument. They commented on possible difficulties in filling out the instrument, clarity and adequacy of the questions to the objective of the research and recorded response times.

In the third stage, construct validity and reliability of PHCHCSS were tested. The scale was developed for professionals involved in the promotion of adequate and healthy nutrition in basic health units (BHU) of São Paulo’s Municipal Health Department (SMS-SP). There are 464 BHU in the city of São Paulo2323. Secretaria Municipal da Saúde de São Paulo, Coordenadoria de Epidemilogia e Informação. Relação dos Estabelecimentos/Serviços da Secretaria Municipal da Saúde por Região/Zona. São Paulo: CEInfo; 2021 [cited 2020 Dec 7]. Available from: https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/upload/saude/arquivos/organizacao/Unid_Munic_Saude_Zona.pdf
https://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/...
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The sample included professionals who expressed their consent to participate. Recruitment was done by contacting regional health coordinators, technical health supervisors and BHU managers to collect the emails addresses of target professionals. A website was also developedaaTeixeira AR, Slater B, Miguel F, Camacho JSP, Mega H. PHCHCSS: PHC Home Cooking Skills Scale: from skills to orientation: an instrument for measuring home cooking skills in Primary Health Care. São Paulo: Department of Nutrition and Public Health, University of São Paulo; 2020 [cited 2020 Nov 7]. Doctoral research project. Available from: https://sites.google.com/view/projetohcdusp/ , advertised on social media to present and clarify the purpose of the research and to recruit participants. The number of participants in the sample was based on the recommendations of Costello and Osborne2424. Costello AB, Osborne JW. Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Pract Assess Res Eval. 2005;10:7. https://doi.org/10.7275/jyj1-4868
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, of 10 subjects per instrument item.

Data collection began on August 2, 2020, lasting 30 days. A total of 472 professionals answered a sociodemographic questionnaire and PHCHCSS online. Their characteristics were presented by descriptive statistics.

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to evaluate the factorial structure of the PHCHCSS. Polychoric correlation and the Robust Diagonally Weighted Least Squares (RDWLS) extraction method were used. The decision on the number of retained factors was made by parallel analysis with random permutation of the observed data2525. Timmerman ME, Lorenzo-Seva U. Dimensionality assessment of ordered polytomous items with parallel analysis. Psychol Methods. 2011;16(2):209-20. https://doi.org/apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0023353
https://doi.org/apa.org/doi/10.1037/a002...
. The rotation used was the Robust Promin2626. Lorenzo-Seva U, Ferrando PJ. Robust Promin: a method for diagonally weighted factor rotation. Liberabit Rev Peru Psicol. 2019;25(1):99-106. https://doi.org/10.24265/liberabit.2019.v25n1.08
https://doi.org/10.24265/liberabit.2019....
. Values of 60% of the total variance explained, items with commonality ≥ 0.4 and factorial loads ≥ 0.30 were considered satisfactory. Items with cross-factorial loads were excluded2727. Tabachnick B, Fidell L. Using multivariate statistics: a practical approach to using multivariate analyses. 6. ed. Boston (USA): Pearson Education; 2013.. KMO values ≥ 0.70 and significant values for Bartlett’s index represented adequacy measures of the sample2828. Hair JF Jr, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE. Multivariate data analysis. 7. ed. Harlow (UK): Pearson Education; 2014..

The goodness of fit of the model was evaluated using the Root Mean Square Error of approximation (RMSEA) index, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI). RMSEA values should be < 0.08, and CFI and TLI values should be > 0.90 or, preferably, 0.952929. Lorenzo-Seva U, Ferrando PJ. FACTOR: a computer program to fit the exploratory factor analysis model. Behav Res Methods. 2006;38:88-91. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192753
https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192753...
,3030. Brown TA. Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. 2. ed. New York: Guilford Press; 2015..

The stability of the factors was assessed by the H-index, which assesses how well a set of items represents a factor. H values > 0.80 suggest a well-defined and probably stable latent variable in different studies3131. Ferrando PJ, Lorenzo-Seva U. Assessing the quality and appropriateness of factor solutions and factor score estimates in exploratory item factor analysis. Educ Psychol Meas. 2018;78(5):762-80. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0013164417719308
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.

To test the reliability, the composite reliability (CR) was calculated, with acceptable values > 0.703232. Valentini F, Damásio BF. Variância média extraída e confiabilidade composta: indicadores de precisão. Psicol Teor Pesq. 2016;32(2):1-7. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-3772e322225
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.

All statistical analyses were performed using the statistical software Factor, version 10.10.032929. Lorenzo-Seva U, Ferrando PJ. FACTOR: a computer program to fit the exploratory factor analysis model. Behav Res Methods. 2006;38:88-91. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192753
https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192753...
.

RESULTS

The Box presents details on the theoretical domains and the construction of a set of items of the prototype version of the PHCHCSS based on the discussions of the research group, exploration of the theoretical framework and systematic review. Forty-four items were proposed to evaluate the home cooking skills of PHC professionals, with response options structured into a five-point Likert-type scale (0 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree).

Box
Identification of theoretical domains and construction of a set of items of the prototype version of the PHCHCSS.

The instruments identified in a systematic review had dimensions of planning, selection and purchase of food and confidence in food preparation, and may or may not include pre-prepared and convenience products.

For the PHCHCSS, the theoretical dimensions of HCS for the construction of the initial items were considered to be the food shopping planning and meal preparation, culinary creativity, the use of sensory perception and confidence in the preparation of meals based on fresh, minimally processed and culinary ingredients, as recommended by the Guia Alimentar para a População Brasileira. Multitasking skills were also identified as a theoretical domain. They are defined in the scientific literature as the ability to perform tasks simultaneously in the home environment, representing an advantage when preparing meals.

The prototype version of the instrument was submitted to content evaluation by experts. The main results of the development and validation of the PHCHCSS are shown in the Figure.

Figure
Flowchart of the development process of the items and domains of the instrument.

In the psychometric phase, the first stage was the validation of the content. The study sample size was adequate for this stage. The response rate for the first round of the Delphi technique was 72.7% (8/11) and 87.5% (7/8) for the second round. Most of the experts were female (n = 7; 87.5%), with a mean age of 42.3 years (SD = 9.0). Of the total, 37.5% (n = 3) were experts (latu sensu), 12.5% (n = 1) masters, 25% (n = 2) PhDs and 12.5% (n = 1) full professors. The panel also had a lay participant (n = 1; 12.5%) with training in gastronomy and a full-time job cooking. The experts were professors at public (25%) and private (12.5%) universities, researchers (12.5%), nutritionists in food services (37.5%) and culinary professionals (12.5%). The length of professional experience ranged from 10 to 33 years (mean = 17.8 years; SD = 7.9 years). The average time devoted to culinary practices among experts was 12.2 hours per week (SD = 9.6 hours per week).

The evaluation of the experts resulted in the exclusion of seven items from the prototype version of the instrument, two items transferred from their original domains, three items revised for clarity, six new items proposed and a change from the agreement scale to a frequency scale, totaling 43 valid items for content. An overview of the content validity analysis of the instrument is shown in Table 1.

Table 1
Content validity analysis of the Primary Health Care Home Cooking Skills by experts.

The second stage, pre-test, was conducted by five professionals from a health center in the city of São Paulo. The covid-19 pandemic posed an obstacle for recruitment, given the intensified demand for care at BHU. The sample was composed of women who worked as nutritionists (n = 3; 60%), psychologists (n = 1, 20%) and nurses (n = 1; 20%). This sample was not part of the validity and reliability analysis of the instrument. Participants reported that the instrument was easy to access by computer, comprehension of the questions and answer options, with a suggestion to enlarge the font size of the questions, which was adopted by the research group. The average response time was 15 minutes.

The third stage consisted in performing construct validity and reliability analysis. The study sample size was adequate for this stage. Table 2 shows the characteristics of the 472 health professionals from the participating PHC.

Table 2
Characteristics of health professionals participating in the study of construct validity and reliability of the Primary Health Care Home Cooking Skills Scale.

The EFA was initially performed with a version of the instrument validated by experts, with 43 items. Bartlett’s (5.248; gl = 903; p < 0.001) and KMO (0.91: very good) test of sphericity suggested interpretability of the correlation matrix. The parallel analysis suggested four representative factors for the data, with an explained variance of 54.6%. Some items had insignificant factorial loads and commonalities2525. Timmerman ME, Lorenzo-Seva U. Dimensionality assessment of ordered polytomous items with parallel analysis. Psychol Methods. 2011;16(2):209-20. https://doi.org/apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0023353
https://doi.org/apa.org/doi/10.1037/a002...
. After these items were excluded, the instrument was analyzed again. Subsequently, items with cross-factorial loads in the interpretation of factors were removed and the instrument underwent a new analysis. The reduced model of the instrument retained 29 of the 43 items. Bartlett’s (5.301,7; gl = 406; p < 0.001) and KMO (0.91: very good) test of sphericity suggested interpretability of the correlation matrix, with four factors identified in the parallel analysis and explained variance of 64.1%.

The final EHAPS model resulted in a scale of the type Likert, with response options on the frequency of actions centered on HCD attributes, with 29 itemsbb Teixeira AR, Camanho JSP, Miguel F, Mega H, Slater B. PHC Home Cooking Skills Scale São Paulo: Department of Nutrition and Public Health, Universidade de São Paulo; 2020 [cited 2020 Dec 14]. Available from: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ORuIN_xfRcLPkCzki5UbZYAM96MLs_VD/view?usp=sharing . The scale score is determined by the sum of the scores corresponding to the options indicated in each item (“never” = 0, “almost never” = 1, “sometimes” = 2, “almost always” = 3 and “always” = 4). Based on the sum of points of the items, four score ranges were proposed with the following statuses: low HCS (0 to 29 points, equivalent to ≤ 25% of the maximum score); moderately low HCS (30 to 58 points, equivalent to > 25% and ≤ 50% of the maximum score); moderately high HCS (59 to 87 points, corresponding to > 50% and ≤ 75% of the maximum score) and high HCS (88 to 116 points, or > 75% of the maximum score). The interpretation of the final score was graphically presented in a ruler format with color gradation (from intense red, representing low HCS, to intense green, representing high HCS), with instructional messages about the score achieved and encouragement to the development of these skills.

Table 3 shows the sequence of item reduction by EFA. The factorial loads of the retained items, composite reliability indexes and replicability estimates of the factor scores (H-index) are shown in Table 4. Names and descriptions of the construct measured by each factor extracted in the EFA are also reported based on the interpretation of the items retained. These factors were understood as dimensions of home cooking skills assessed by the PHCHCSS.

Table 3
Sequence of item reduction by exploratory factor analysis of the Primary Health Care Home Cooking Skills Scale.
Table 4
Factorial structure of the Primary Health Care Home Cooking Skills Scale after reduction of items.

The items retained showed adequate loads in their respective factors. No new patterns of cross loads were found in the reduced model (i.e. items with factorial loads > 0.30 in more than one factor). The composite reliability of the factors was adequate (> 0.70) for all factors. The H-index measure suggested replicable factors in future studies (H > 0.80)2828. Hair JF Jr, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE. Multivariate data analysis. 7. ed. Harlow (UK): Pearson Education; 2014..

It should be noted that the factorial structure presented adequate adjustment indexes (χ2 = 296, gl = 334,246; p = 0.06; RMSEA = 0.037; IFC = 0.99; TLI = 0.99).

DISCUSSION

This study reported the development of an instrument to measure the home cooking skills of primary health care professionals in the city of São Paulo. The psychometric methodology proved to be appropriate to analyze the reliability and validity of the PHCHCSS.

Although uncommon in scale development studies, the content validity stage had a lay member in the the expert panel3333. Epstein J, Santo RM, Guillemin F. A review of guidelines for cross-cultural adaptation of questionnaires could not bring out a consensus. J Clin Epidemiol. 2015;68(4):435-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.11.021
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. The inclusion of this member allowed identifying and correcting potential problems in the scale in advance of its application for data collection for exploratory factor analysis88. Morgado FFR, Meireles JFF, Neves CM, Amaral ACS, Ferreira MEC. Scale development: ten main limitations and recommendations to improve future research practices. Psicol Reflex Crit. 2017;30:3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-016-0057-1
https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-016-0057-...
. The application of the strict consensus method with two measures (CVRc and k) to quantify the degree of agreement among experts resulted in items with strong content validity. The opinion of experts was considered in other studies that reported instruments for measuring cooking skills1212. Martins CA, Baraldi LG, Scagliusi FB, Villar BS, Monteiro CA. Cooking Skills Index: development and reliability assessment. Rev Nutr. 2019;32:e180124. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9865201932e180124
https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9865201932e...
,3434. Lavelle F, McGowan L, Hollywood L, Surgenor D, McCloat A, Mooney E, et al. The development and validation of measures to assess cooking skills and food skills. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2017;14:118. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-017-0575-y
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. However, these studies did not present empirical methods derived from the judgment of experts as evidence of the content validity. The fact that experts give opinions on construct items does not in itself provide relevant information for the validation process1313. Furr RM, Bacharach VR. Psychometrics: an introduction. 2. ed. London (UK): SAGE Publications; 2014.,2828. Hair JF Jr, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE. Multivariate data analysis. 7. ed. Harlow (UK): Pearson Education; 2014.. Thus, this study stands out regarding the methodological rigor employed for content validity of the PHCHCSS.

The pre-test participants reported adequate usability of the instrument. Five health professionals participated in this stage. Rattray et al.3535. Rattray J, Jones MC. Essential elements of questionnaire design and development. J Clin Nurs. 2007;16(2):234-43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2006.01573.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2006...
assert that pilot studies can be conducted with small samples as long as the performance of the analyses is not compromised in any way. Considering that the sample was used to qualitatively evaluate the understanding and deployment of the instrument, the number of pre-test professionals did not create limitations to the study.

Regarding the stage of construct validity and reliability of the PHCHCSS, the parallel analysis suggested a multidimensional instrument with four factors. The multidimensionality of the scale is aligned with the complex nature of the acts of eating and cooking, recognized by the Guia Alimentar para a População Brasileira33. Ministério da Saúde (BR), Secretaria de Atenção Primária à Saúde, Departamento de Atenção Básica. Guia alimentar para a população brasileira. 2. ed. Brasília, DF; 2014 [cited 2020 Dec 7]. Available from: https://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/publicacoes/guia_alimentar_populacao_brasileira_2ed.pdf
https://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/publicaco...
.

The creative planning dimension considers creativity when planning and preparing home-cooked meals in natura, minimally processed foods and procedures done in advance to facilitate the act of cooking. A similar finding was observed in the study by Jomori1111. Jomori MM, Vasconcelos FAG, Bernardo GL, Uggioni PL, Proença RPC. The concept of cooking skills: a review with contributions to the scientific debate. Rev Nutr. 2018;31(1):119-35. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-98652018000100010
https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-98652018000...
, which considers the creative ability to plan menus and organize meal preparation as skills for individual-centered culinary practice. This dimension is related to the main recommendation of the Guia Alimentar para a População Brasileira33. Ministério da Saúde (BR), Secretaria de Atenção Primária à Saúde, Departamento de Atenção Básica. Guia alimentar para a população brasileira. 2. ed. Brasília, DF; 2014 [cited 2020 Dec 7]. Available from: https://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/publicacoes/guia_alimentar_populacao_brasileira_2ed.pdf
https://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/publicaco...
: “You should always prefer in natura or minimally processed foods and culinary preparations to ultra-processed foods”. It is also related to the chapter on understanding and overcoming obstacles to putting this and other recommendations into practice. Cooking procedures done in advance shorten the time spent preparing meals. Given the pace of modern life, this obstacle is more easily overcome when multitasking skills are also put into practice.

The dimension of multitasking skills comprises the ability to perform household tasks simultaneously to culinary practices. If an individual is unable to cook while doing laundry and taking care of children, they may be less likely to prepare a home-cooked meal3636. Ternier S. Understanding and measuring cooking skills and knowledge as factors influencing convenience food purchases and consumption. Surg J. 2010;3(2):69-76. https://doi.org/10.21083/surg.v3i2.1122
https://doi.org/10.21083/surg.v3i2.1122...
. Gabe3737. Gabe KT, Jaime PC. Development and testing of a scale to evaluate diet according to the recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines for the Brazilian Population. Public Health Nutr. 2019;22(5):785-96. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980018004123
https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001800412...
discusses the influence of the home environment on the quality of the meals consumed, highlighting that there is a gender discrepancy regarding responsibility for household chores, which is reinforced by Mills et al.3838. Mills S, White M, Brown H, Wrieden W, Kwasnicka D, Halligan J, et al. Health and social determinants and outcomes of home cooking: a systematic review of observational studies. Appetite. 2017;111:116-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.12.022
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.12....
These findings provide an opportunity to use the PHCHCSS in studies aimed at analyzing differences in multitasking skills between genders, in order to encourage the fair sharing of responsibilities in the home, which includes preparing meals.

The dimension of confidence regarding cooking skills corresponds to self-sufficiency to employ cooking techniques and utensils. According to Martins1212. Martins CA, Baraldi LG, Scagliusi FB, Villar BS, Monteiro CA. Cooking Skills Index: development and reliability assessment. Rev Nutr. 2019;32:e180124. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9865201932e180124
https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9865201932e...
, the confidence judgment considers individual performance, which depends on practice and task performed, considered an excellent predictor of behavior to determine how individuals employ their skills. The PHCHCSS reduces misinterpretations about HCS by disregarding questions about confidence to prepare meals based on ready-made and convenience products, which could overestimate the individual’s skills, a recurring problem in international instruments11. McGowan L, Caraher M, Raats M, Lavelle F, Hollywood L, McDowell D, et al. Domestic cooking and food skills: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2017;57(11):2412-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1072495
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.10...
. The cooking confidence scale by Lavelle et al.3434. Lavelle F, McGowan L, Hollywood L, Surgenor D, McCloat A, Mooney E, et al. The development and validation of measures to assess cooking skills and food skills. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2017;14:118. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-017-0575-y
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-017-0575-...
, for example, includes questions about confidence to “prepare food in a microwave oven, including heating ready-made dishes”.

Finally, the dimension of food selection, combination and preparation refers to the sensory and quantification aspects of food aiming at the adequacy of purchasing and cooking procedures. Similar components, which concern the ability to shop for food, use it in preparations and judge it for quality, are found in the study about food literacy by Vidgen and Gallegos3939. Vidgen HA, Gallegos D. Defining food literacy and its components. Appetite. 2014;76:50-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.01.010
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.01....
. According to the authors, low food literacy is associated with increased diet-related chronic diseases.

The results of the exploratory factor analysis showed adequate factorial loads and commonalities in all items retained in the instrument2727. Tabachnick B, Fidell L. Using multivariate statistics: a practical approach to using multivariate analyses. 6. ed. Boston (USA): Pearson Education; 2013.,2828. Hair JF Jr, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE. Multivariate data analysis. 7. ed. Harlow (UK): Pearson Education; 2014.and they suggest a well-defined latent variable, with dimensions that are likely to be stable in future studies3131. Ferrando PJ, Lorenzo-Seva U. Assessing the quality and appropriateness of factor solutions and factor score estimates in exploratory item factor analysis. Educ Psychol Meas. 2018;78(5):762-80. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0013164417719308
https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00131644177193...
. The adjustment indexes presented validated the model extracted from the analysis and confirm the measured theory, showing a well-defined construct3030. Brown TA. Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. 2. ed. New York: Guilford Press; 2015.. The reliability of the instrument was also adequate, with satisfactory results of composite reliability. This measure represents a good indicator to evaluate the quality of the structural model of the instrument and is presented as a more robust precision indicator, compared to the alpha coefficient3232. Valentini F, Damásio BF. Variância média extraída e confiabilidade composta: indicadores de precisão. Psicol Teor Pesq. 2016;32(2):1-7. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-3772e322225
https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-3772e322225...
.

Developing evaluation instruments is a complex task, only recommended in the lack of another instrument suitable to the reality being investigated4040. Streiner DL, Norman GR, Cairney J. Health measurement scales: a practical guide to their development and use. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press; 2015., which is the case in this study.

As an advantage, the PHCHCSS is short, easy to apply and standardized, allowing its use in comparative studies. This instrument summarizes the home cooking skills according to scoreranges easy to interpret, delimited by traffic light colors, based on a diagram suggested by Gabe3737. Gabe KT, Jaime PC. Development and testing of a scale to evaluate diet according to the recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines for the Brazilian Population. Public Health Nutr. 2019;22(5):785-96. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980018004123
https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001800412...
to interpret the score of her dietary quality assessment instrument, adopted by the Ministry of Health. It also offers messages on the status of the individual’s home cooking skills, with instructions for encouraging and appreciating these skills. It should be noted, however, that the score of the scale derives from its raw score. Although commonly found in studies of instrument development, the use of this score assumes a subjective definition of classification cut-off points, conferring the same weight for items with different factorial loads. The item response theory is an analysis proposal to overcome this limitation by considering the characteristics of the questionnaire items regarding the ability to differentiate the variable of interest and location in the respective continuum and a probabilistic model to estimate and describe the scores4141. Santos TSS, Araújo PHM, Andrade DF, Louzada MLC, Assis MAA, Slater B. Duas evidências de validade da ESQUADA e níveis de qualidade da dieta dos brasileiros. Rev Saude Publica. 2021;55:39. http://www.rsp.fsp.usp.br/wp-content/uploads/articles_xml/1518-8787-rsp-55-39/1518-8787-rsp-55-39-pt.x34413.pdf
http://www.rsp.fsp.usp.br/wp-content/upl...
. Thus, the item response theory could be used in future studies aiming to improve the score of this instrument, validated by classical methods.

Automation minimized possible errors by the interviewer. The online application of the instrument proved advantageous due to its low cost and ease of access. However, its application on paper has not been studied to verify the occurrence of similar results, a limitation of this study. The printed version would allow access to health professionals working in places with limited internet access or not included digitally.

Another limitation is that a convergent validity study was not conducted. This kind of validity refers to the associations of the PHCHCSS score with external measures, which could confirm whether the scale measures HCS related to food choices recommended by the Guia Alimentar para a População Brasileira and could be performed by comparing the scale score with a 24-hour dietary recall or with the score of a food literacy scale. Conducting this validity study would be opportune in future analyses.

Finally, the sample used for exploratory factor analysis was composed of professionals working in primary health care in the city of São Paulo. Despite being the main destination for regional migration in Brazil4242. Instituto de Políticas Públicas em Direitos Humanos do Mercosul, Organização Internacional para as Migrações. Migrantes regionais na cidade de São Paulo: direitos sociais e políticas públicas. Cidade Autônoma de Buenos Aires (CABA); 2016 [cited 2020 Dec 7]. Available from: https://cidadeseducadoras.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/migrantes_regionais_na_cidade_de_sao_paulo.pdf
https://cidadeseducadoras.org.br/wp-cont...
, the sample from this city may not represent the cultural diversity of food within the national territory. Thus, a cross-cultural adaptation of the instrument for Brazilian macroregions is recommended.

This study is innovative in the context of the recognition of cooking as an emancipatory practice and health promotion. It is understood mastering home cooking skills allows primary health care professionals to bring their scientific knowledge closer to people’s lives and to social practices and knowledge, thereby strengthening the ability of individuals or communities to identify solutions for their daily lives. This instrument will make it possible to reliably ascertain the need for qualification of the workforce for actions to promote healthy and adequate food based on home cooking skills. It also provides opportunities to identify needs for reviewing pedagogical proposals of health courses, to train professionals to work on food sovereignty and the human right to adequate food at the expense of medicalizing practices and guidelines.

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  • a
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  • b
    Teixeira AR, Camanho JSP, Miguel F, Mega H, Slater B. PHC Home Cooking Skills Scale São Paulo: Department of Nutrition and Public Health, Universidade de São Paulo; 2020 [cited 2020 Dec 14]. Available from: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ORuIN_xfRcLPkCzki5UbZYAM96MLs_VD/view?usp=sharing

  • Funding: Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (Fapesp - Process No. 2019/14348-5).

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    29 Aug 2022
  • Date of issue
    2022

History

  • Received
    07 Jan 2021
  • Accepted
    20 Oct 2021
Faculdade de Saúde Pública da Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo - SP - Brazil
E-mail: revsp@org.usp.br