Abstract:

Cyberbullying is a form of online aggression between peers, the prevalence of which varies from 10% to 40% according to studies in different countries. A large share of the scientific literature on cyberbullying tends to individualize and medicalize the causes of the violence, without understanding the context in which it takes place or the meanings it acquires for those who practice it. The study aims to understand the beliefs, values, and practices that adolescents mobilize in performing the roles involved in cyberbullying. The study was conducted as a meta-ethnography, aimed at producing a synthesis of qualitative studies based on the theoretical interpretation of their basic findings. The study’s corpus consisted of 33 articles selected from the BVS, PubMed, SciELO, and Scopus databases. The results include a description of expressions of cyberbullying, motivations, and adolescents’ experiences as victims, perpetrators, and bystanders. With symbolic interactionism as the theoretical reference, we found that cyberbullying is a unique expression of online sociability. We contend that its practice is associated with identity-building processes, based on mechanisms of peer identification and opposition by which the participants also reproduce and compete for positions of recognition in their sociability. In this process, cyberbullying sanctions behaviors that transgress a dominant symbolic order for adolescence.

Keywords:
Cyberbullying; Interpersonal Relations; Violence; Adolescent; Review

Introduction

Cyberbullying among adolescents is a practice that has been introduced as a novel problem in the fields of health and education. The literature defines it as an intentional aggression (verbal, emotional, or social) by a person or group using electronic devices, repeated over time, against another person who cannot easily defend himself or herself ¹1. Hutson E. Cyberbullying in adolescence: a concept analysis. Adv Nurs Sci 2016; 39:60-70.^,22. Menesini E, Nocentini A, Paladino B, Scheithauer H, Schultze-Krumbholz A, Frisén A, et al. Definitions of cyberbullying. In: Smith P, Steffgen G, editors. Cyberbullying through the new media: findings from an international network. London/New York: Psychology Press; 2013. p. 23-36.^,33. Peter IK, Petermann F. Cyberbullying: a concept analysis of defining attributes and additional influencing factors. Comput Human Behav 2018; 86:350-66.. This definition is an adaptation to online spaces of the concept of school bullying, emerging in the early 21st century, when research began on cyberbullying in the United States and Europe. However, various researchers contend that this definition is incomplete and inconsistent with the characteristics of online space, and that it is necessary to focus on the way information and communication technologies (ICTs) modify the conceptualization of aggressions among adolescents. For example, the authors state that the online space builds new forms of unequal power, especially in time and space, thus allowing unhindered access to the victim and the possibility of acting from anonymity, which facilitates attacking without disclosing the aggressor’s identity ¹1. Hutson E. Cyberbullying in adolescence: a concept analysis. Adv Nurs Sci 2016; 39:60-70.^,22. Menesini E, Nocentini A, Paladino B, Scheithauer H, Schultze-Krumbholz A, Frisén A, et al. Definitions of cyberbullying. In: Smith P, Steffgen G, editors. Cyberbullying through the new media: findings from an international network. London/New York: Psychology Press; 2013. p. 23-36.^,33. Peter IK, Petermann F. Cyberbullying: a concept analysis of defining attributes and additional influencing factors. Comput Human Behav 2018; 86:350-66.^,44. Kowalski R, Giumetti G, Schroeder A, Lattanner M. Bullying in the digital age: a critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychol Bull 2014; 140:1073-137.^,55. Espelage D, Rao M, Craven R. Theories of cyberbullying. In: Bauman S, Cross D, Walker J, editors. Principles of cyberbullying research: definitions, measures, and methodology. New York: Routledge; 2015. p. 49-64.^,5,66. Bottino SMB, Bottino CMC, Regina CG, Correia AVL, Ribeiro WS. Cyberbullying and adolescent mental health: systematic review. Cad Saúde Pública 2015; 31:463-75.. Another discussion addresses the issue of repetition, since cyberbullying does not involve only the number of attacks on the same person, given that unlimited reproduction of a single act amplifies the harm qualitatively ¹1. Hutson E. Cyberbullying in adolescence: a concept analysis. Adv Nurs Sci 2016; 39:60-70.^,22. Menesini E, Nocentini A, Paladino B, Scheithauer H, Schultze-Krumbholz A, Frisén A, et al. Definitions of cyberbullying. In: Smith P, Steffgen G, editors. Cyberbullying through the new media: findings from an international network. London/New York: Psychology Press; 2013. p. 23-36.^,33. Peter IK, Petermann F. Cyberbullying: a concept analysis of defining attributes and additional influencing factors. Comput Human Behav 2018; 86:350-66.^,44. Kowalski R, Giumetti G, Schroeder A, Lattanner M. Bullying in the digital age: a critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychol Bull 2014; 140:1073-137.^,55. Espelage D, Rao M, Craven R. Theories of cyberbullying. In: Bauman S, Cross D, Walker J, editors. Principles of cyberbullying research: definitions, measures, and methodology. New York: Routledge; 2015. p. 49-64.. These characteristics, plus the aggression’s permanent recording in space and participation by an expanded audience, forge new dynamics in cyberbullying that require specific analysis and theorization. Studies in various countries report that the prevalence in adolescents ranges from 10% to 40%, and that victims can suffer psychosomatic problems, depression, stress, low school performance, difficulties in peer relations, and even self-mutilation and suicidal ideation ⁴4. Kowalski R, Giumetti G, Schroeder A, Lattanner M. Bullying in the digital age: a critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychol Bull 2014; 140:1073-137.^,66. Bottino SMB, Bottino CMC, Regina CG, Correia AVL, Ribeiro WS. Cyberbullying and adolescent mental health: systematic review. Cad Saúde Pública 2015; 31:463-75.^,77. John A, Glendenning AC, Marchant A, Montgomery P, Stewart A, Wood S, et al. Self-harm, suicidal behaviours, and cyberbullying in children and young people: systematic review. J Med Internet Res 2018; 20:e129..

According to the literature, cyberbullying involves three basic roles, namely perpetrators, victims, and bystanders, and individuals may alternate these roles according to the context ⁵5. Espelage D, Rao M, Craven R. Theories of cyberbullying. In: Bauman S, Cross D, Walker J, editors. Principles of cyberbullying research: definitions, measures, and methodology. New York: Routledge; 2015. p. 49-64.^,88. Bayraktar F, Machackova H, Dedkova L, Cerna A, Ševčíková A. Cyberbullying: the discriminant factors among cyberbullies, cybervictims, and cyberbully-victims in a Czech adolescent sample. J Interpers Violence 2015; 30:3192-216.^,99. Huluba Grigore AN. The dynamics of the roles of aggressor and victim in bullying and cyberbullying: a challenge for the resilient development of students. Symposion 2014; 1:223-34.. Among these roles, bystanders tend to take a central position, since their actions and reactions can change the course of events. That is, they can reduce the incidents’ effects by offering support to the victims, reinforce the aggression by joining the harassment, reproduce the online material, and/or act passively, thereby legitimizing the act ¹⁰10. Allison KR, Bussey K. Cyber-bystanding in context: a review of the literature on witnesses' responses to cyberbullying. Child Youth Serv Rev 2016; 65:183-94..

Studies on cyberbullying mainly analyze the differences with offline bullying ¹1. Hutson E. Cyberbullying in adolescence: a concept analysis. Adv Nurs Sci 2016; 39:60-70.^,22. Menesini E, Nocentini A, Paladino B, Scheithauer H, Schultze-Krumbholz A, Frisén A, et al. Definitions of cyberbullying. In: Smith P, Steffgen G, editors. Cyberbullying through the new media: findings from an international network. London/New York: Psychology Press; 2013. p. 23-36.^,33. Peter IK, Petermann F. Cyberbullying: a concept analysis of defining attributes and additional influencing factors. Comput Human Behav 2018; 86:350-66., identify prevalence ¹¹11. Brochado S, Soares S, Fraga S. A scoping review on studies of cyberbullying prevalence among adolescents. Trauma Violence Abuse 2017; 18:523-31.^,1212. Garaigordobil M. Cyberbullying in adolescents and youth in the Basque Country: prevalence of cybervictims, cyberaggressors, and cyberobservers. J Youth Stud 2015; 18:569-82., build epidemiological profiles ¹¹11. Brochado S, Soares S, Fraga S. A scoping review on studies of cyberbullying prevalence among adolescents. Trauma Violence Abuse 2017; 18:523-31.^,1313. Aboujaoude E, Savage MW, Starcevic V, Salame WO. Cyberbullying: review of an old problem gone viral. J Adolesc Health 2015; 57:10-8.^,1414. Baldry AC, Farrington DP, Sorrentino A. »,» ®,® §,§ ­,­ ¹,¹ ²,² ³,³ ß,ß Þ,Þ þ,þ ×,× Ú,Ú ú,ú Û,Û û,û Ù,Ù ù,ù ¨,¨ Ü,Ü ü,ü Ý,Ý ý,ý ¥,¥ ÿ,ÿ ¶,¶ Am I at risk of cyberbullying »,» ®,® §,§ ­,­ ¹,¹ ²,² ³,³ ß,ß Þ,Þ þ,þ ×,× Ú,Ú ú,ú Û,Û û,û Ù,Ù ù,ù ¨,¨ Ü,Ü ü,ü Ý,Ý ý,ý ¥,¥ ÿ,ÿ ¶,¶ ? A narrative review and conceptual framework for research on risk of cyberbullying and cybervictimization: the risk and needs assessment approach. Aggress Violent Behav 2015; 23:36-51.^,1515. Kowalski RM, Limber SP, McCord A. A developmental approach to cyberbullying: prevalence and protective factors. Aggress Violent Behav 2018; 45:20-32., develop predictive behavioral models ¹⁶16. Pabian S, Vandebosch H. Using the theory of planned behaviour to understand cyberbullying: The importance of beliefs for developing interventions. Eur J Dev Psychol 2014; 11:463-77.^,1717. Beyazit U, Simsek S, Ayhan AB. An examination of the predictive factors of cyberbullying in adolescents. Soc Behav Pers 2017; 45:1511-22.^,1818. Paez GR. Cyberbullying among adolescents: a general strain theory perspective. J Sch Violence 2018; 17:74-85.^,1919. Meter DJ, Bauman S. Moral disengagement about cyberbullying and parental monitoring: Effects on traditional bullying and victimization via cyberbullying involvement. J Early Adolesc 2018; 38:303-26., validate measurement scales ²⁰20. Twardowska-Staszek E, Zych I, Ortega-Ruiz R. Bullying and cyberbullying in Polish elementary and middle schools: validation of questionnaires and nature of the phenomena. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 95:217-25.^,2121. Betts LR, Spenser KA. Developing the cyber victimization experiences and cyberbullying behaviors scales. J Soc Psychol 2017; 178:147-64.^,2222. Buelga S, Cava MJ, Musitu G. Validation of the adolescent victimization through mobile phone and internet scale. Rev Panam Salud Pública 2012; 32:36-42.^,2323. Gálvez-Nieto J, Vera-Bachman D, Cerda C, Díaz R. Escala de victimización entre adolescentes a través del teléfono móvil y de internet: estudio de validación de una versión abreviada en estudiantes chilenos. Rev Iberoam Diagn Eval Psicol 2016; 1:16-27., establish consequences for health ⁶6. Bottino SMB, Bottino CMC, Regina CG, Correia AVL, Ribeiro WS. Cyberbullying and adolescent mental health: systematic review. Cad Saúde Pública 2015; 31:463-75.^,77. John A, Glendenning AC, Marchant A, Montgomery P, Stewart A, Wood S, et al. Self-harm, suicidal behaviours, and cyberbullying in children and young people: systematic review. J Med Internet Res 2018; 20:e129., and evaluate intervention programs in schools ²⁴24. Pérez JC, Astudillo J, Varela TJ, Lecannelier AF. Evaluación de la efectividad del programa vínculos para la prevención e intervención del bullying en Santiago de Chile. Psicol Esc Educ 2013; 17:163-72.^,2525. Nocentini A, Zambuto V, Menesini E. Anti-bullying programs and information and communication technologies (ICTs): a systematic review. Aggress Violent Behav 2015; 23:52-60.. These studies tend to focus on the identification of personal attributes of adolescents acting as risk factors to explain cyberbullying, without including perspectives aimed at understanding the context in which cyberbullying takes place or its meanings for those practicing it. Meanwhile, qualitative studies describe beliefs, values, and practices of adolescents that have experienced cyberbullying in one of its roles or online sociability in general, but they fail to address the interactions between the roles or reconstruct the dynamics of the attacks ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2727. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,2828. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.. In this sense, research is still needed on the relational and symbolic processes that trigger cyberbullying and the links to the context. Another challenge for this field is the development of a theoretical interpretation beyond the cases’ unique characteristics.

Based on this reading, we focused on understanding the recurrent beliefs, values, and practices mobilized by adolescents in each of the roles they play in cyberbullying, the crosscutting contextual characteristics that impel them to act or refrain from acting, and how this process is inscribed in their daily sociability. Our objective was to conduct an interpretative synthesis of qualitative studies in different social contexts to identify crosscutting patterns in the dynamics of cyberbullying and online sociability. We conducted a meta-ethnography of scientific articles for this purpose. Meta-ethnography differs from other reviews because it summarizes findings through translations of core meanings between studies, with the aim of conducting a new theoretical interpretation, based on the persons’ perspectives and experiences ³⁰30. Noblit G, Hare R. Meta-ethnography: synthesizing qualitative studies. Newbury Park: SAGE Publications; 1988.. In this case, based on symbolic interactionism, we analyzed cyberbullying as a unique expression of online sociability ³¹31. Blumer H. El interaccionismo simbólico: perspectiva y método. Barcelona: Hora; 1982.^,3232. Goffman E. La presentación de la persona en la vida cotidiana. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 1994.^,3333. Goffman E. Estigma: La identidad deteriorada. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 2006.. We thus contend that it is a practice associated with identity-building processes, based on mechanisms of peer identification/opposition, by which positions of recognition are also reproduced and vie with each other in their sociability ³⁴34. Giménez G. La discriminación desde la perspectiva del reconocimiento social. Revista de Investigación Social 2005; 1:31-45.^,3535. Tomasini M. Hacerse el malo: interacciones cotidianas entre estudiantes varones de primer año de escuelas secundarias de Córdoba, Argentina. Sex Salud Soc (Rio J.) 2013; (15):86-112.^,3636. Honneth A. La lucha por el reconocimiento: por una gramática moral de los conflictos sociales. Barcelona: Crítica; 1997.^,3737. Ringrose J, Renold E. Normative cruelties and gender deviants: the performative effects of bully discourses for girls and boys in school. Br Educ Res J 2010; 36:573-96.. In this process, cyberbullying sanctions behaviors that transgress a dominant symbolic order of what an adolescent should be and is ³⁸38. Butler J. Actos performativos y constitución del género: un ensayo sobre fenomenología y teoría feminista. Debate Feminista 1998; 18:296-314.. Finally, we analyze the results’ implications for designing policies on cyberbullying in adolescents.

Methodology

Meta-ethnography consists of a type of meta-synthesis of studies conducted with a qualitative methodology, in which the process involves seven stages that occur simultaneously and interactively ³⁰30. Noblit G, Hare R. Meta-ethnography: synthesizing qualitative studies. Newbury Park: SAGE Publications; 1988.^,3939. France EF, Cunningham M, Ring N, Uny I, Duncan EAS, Jepson RG, et al. Improving reporting of meta-ethnography: the eMERGe reporting guidance. BMC Med Res Methodol 2019; 19:25.. The first two stages consist of the identification of the research problem and selection of relevant studies for establishing a corpus for analysis. To identify the studies, we consulted the BVS, PubMed, SciELO, and Scopus databases due to their international recognition and thematic specialization in health and social sciences. To select the search terms, an exploratory stage was performed that identified and tested a set of words that could retrieve studies on cyberbullying. These words are the following: online bullying; cyber victimization, online aggression, cyber harassment, cyber abuse, peer victimization AND Internet, stalking AND Internet, cyber space AND violence, social media AND violence, Internet AND violence, social networking AND violence, sexting AND violence, Facebook AND violence, Twitter Messaging AND violence, hate speech AND Internet. The reading and analysis of the results and construction of a preliminary corpus showed that the broad terms retrieved mainly other phenomena of online space and that all the studies that address cyberbullying mention it specifically as such, although they discuss its conceptualization. Although the descriptor cyberbullying entered the MeSH thesaurus in 2019, researchers have used this term since the early 21st century ¹1. Hutson E. Cyberbullying in adolescence: a concept analysis. Adv Nurs Sci 2016; 39:60-70.. Thus, for the final search, we decided to use only cyberbullying as a free term (Table 1).

Based on the references obtained from the searches, we selected the articles that met the following criteria: qualitative methodology that revealed the points of view of the persons interviewed, cyberbullying as the object of study, defined as such by the researchers, and study population of adolescents 11 to 18 years of age. We excluded studies that mentioned cyberbullying indirectly or that assessed intervention programs in schools. Figure 1 illustrates the process of building the corpus. The final corpus for analysis was 33 studies, shown in Box 1. The corpus was evaluated with the tool Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP. https://casp-uk.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/CASP-Qualitative-Checklist-2018_fillable_form.pdf), with the purpose of analyzing the quality of the qualitative studies. The evaluation and discussion concluded that the material displays quality in terms of the clarity of records and is sufficient for the proposed objective. Box 2 shows the details of the analysis.

Third, from the selected articles, we analyzed the findings, discussion, and conclusions sections to detect core themes in each, to understand how they relate to each other, in the fourth stage. In this reading, we found that in all the studies, the adolescents report experiences of their own or their peers on cyberbullying and sociability. The studies tend to focus on a single role and offer results that complement each other. Thus, according to the meta-ethnographic proposals, we performed a synthesis based on the composition of an “argumentative line”, which consists of inferring structures of meaning from the parts (independent studies on roles) that allow understanding the whole (cyberbullying). We thus analyze the similarities and differences between cases and integrate them into a holistic interpretative framework.

The fifth stage involves the systematic translation of the previously defined core themes. The translation lies in establishing analogies between the studies based on the texts’ meanings. It is not only the data that are synthesized, but also what is implicit in them. The sixth stage consisted of a synthesis of the translations performed between the studies, aimed at building a coherent whole from the parts as a function of the theoretical framework. The description of the findings is thus presented, taking the corpus as a totality, without citing the articles individually. The seventh stage is the presentation of the synthesis, aimed at offering at new interpretation of the object of study traversing the entire set of studies.

Results

Adolescents report that regardless of gender, they can perform three roles in cyberbullying: victims, perpetrators, or bystanders ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2727. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,2828. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4040. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,4141. Bryce J, Fraser J. The role of disclosure of personal information in the evaluation of risk and trust in young peoples' online interactions. Comput Human Behav 2014; 30:299-306.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5353. Keipi T, Oksanen A. Self-exploration, anonymity and risks in the online setting: analysis of narratives by 14-18-year olds. J Youth Stud 2014; 17:1097-113.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5555. Radovic A, Gmelin T, Stein BD, Miller E. Depressed adolescents' positive and negative use of social media. J Adolesc 2017; 55:5-15.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,5959. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J. "The internet is a mask": high school students' suggestions for preventing cyberbullying. West J Emerg Med 2014; 15:587-92.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.^,6363. O'Brien N, Moules T. Not sticks and stones but tweets and texts: findings from a national cyberbullying project. Pastor Care Educ 2013; 31:53-65.^,6464. Ševčíková A, Šmahel D, Otavová M. The perception of cyberbullying in adolescent victims. Emot Behav Diffic 2012; 17:319-28.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6666. Maher D. Cyberbullying: an ethnographic case study of one Australian upper primary school class. Youth Stud Aust 2008; 27:50-7.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. When speaking of their own personal experiences and/or of their peers, they do not speak of the roles as a “permanent state”, but as a situational position they occupy ⁴⁰40. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.. Thus, the same persons may be attackers and victims in different scenarios ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,6363. O'Brien N, Moules T. Not sticks and stones but tweets and texts: findings from a national cyberbullying project. Pastor Care Educ 2013; 31:53-65.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. Bystanders also play a varying role. They may reinforce the attack by backing the perpetrators, defend the victim, or simply watch ⁴¹41. Bryce J, Fraser J. The role of disclosure of personal information in the evaluation of risk and trust in young peoples' online interactions. Comput Human Behav 2014; 30:299-306.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. While cyberbullying can display recurrent positions between those exercising the roles of victims, perpetrators, and bystanders, for the adolescents, communication mediated by technologies makes it difficult to discern between roles when observing an attack. Adolescents are unaware of its contextualization, the event’s trajectory, and whether it originates in the offline space or continues in parallel to it. In part, this ambivalence and alternance occur because the linkage between the online and offline spaces is constant, and persons occupy different positions in the two spaces ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. The attacks take on a complex dynamic and generate the perception that they never end, due to the movements between spaces and participation by more actors ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2828. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13.

Adolescents as aggressors: what they do and why

In all the expressions of cyberbullying, the adolescents are exposed to situations of humiliation, in which their image and social value are harmed ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2727. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,2828. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4040. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,4141. Bryce J, Fraser J. The role of disclosure of personal information in the evaluation of risk and trust in young peoples' online interactions. Comput Human Behav 2014; 30:299-306.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5353. Keipi T, Oksanen A. Self-exploration, anonymity and risks in the online setting: analysis of narratives by 14-18-year olds. J Youth Stud 2014; 17:1097-113.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5555. Radovic A, Gmelin T, Stein BD, Miller E. Depressed adolescents' positive and negative use of social media. J Adolesc 2017; 55:5-15.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,5959. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J. "The internet is a mask": high school students' suggestions for preventing cyberbullying. West J Emerg Med 2014; 15:587-92.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.^,6363. O'Brien N, Moules T. Not sticks and stones but tweets and texts: findings from a national cyberbullying project. Pastor Care Educ 2013; 31:53-65.^,6464. Ševčíková A, Šmahel D, Otavová M. The perception of cyberbullying in adolescent victims. Emot Behav Diffic 2012; 17:319-28.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6666. Maher D. Cyberbullying: an ethnographic case study of one Australian upper primary school class. Youth Stud Aust 2008; 27:50-7.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. The most frequent modalities are criticizing or insulting ²⁷27. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5353. Keipi T, Oksanen A. Self-exploration, anonymity and risks in the online setting: analysis of narratives by 14-18-year olds. J Youth Stud 2014; 17:1097-113.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6464. Ševčíková A, Šmahel D, Otavová M. The perception of cyberbullying in adolescent victims. Emot Behav Diffic 2012; 17:319-28.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.; sharing/disclosing personal information, photos, and videos (whether or not manipulated with editing software) ²⁷27. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4040. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6464. Ševčíková A, Šmahel D, Otavová M. The perception of cyberbullying in adolescent victims. Emot Behav Diffic 2012; 17:319-28.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.; threatening ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.; hacking personal accounts to send humiliating photos or write comments that harm the account holder’s social ties ²⁸28. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5353. Keipi T, Oksanen A. Self-exploration, anonymity and risks in the online setting: analysis of narratives by 14-18-year olds. J Youth Stud 2014; 17:1097-113.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.; creating specific pages to post information, images, or criticisms of someone ⁴⁵45. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6464. Ševčíková A, Šmahel D, Otavová M. The perception of cyberbullying in adolescent victims. Emot Behav Diffic 2012; 17:319-28.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.; and excluding someone from online groups and activities ⁴³43. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6363. O'Brien N, Moules T. Not sticks and stones but tweets and texts: findings from a national cyberbullying project. Pastor Care Educ 2013; 31:53-65.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503..

We identified in these reports the principal motivations triggering cyberbullying. The first relates to “canceling” those who fail to meet the standards for behavior and appearance. Adolescents, through cyberbullying, highlight in their peers aspects that are sensitive for feeling recognized, especially attributes that fail to meet social standards for behavior ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2727. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63., aesthetic production ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2727. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5353. Keipi T, Oksanen A. Self-exploration, anonymity and risks in the online setting: analysis of narratives by 14-18-year olds. J Youth Stud 2014; 17:1097-113.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36., and sexual orientation ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2727. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,6464. Ševčíková A, Šmahel D, Otavová M. The perception of cyberbullying in adolescent victims. Emot Behav Diffic 2012; 17:319-28.. Victims are attacked because they are different, and because of what others think of them, as a function of socially established ways of being ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2727. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. In the reports, the adolescents assign a certain degree of responsibility to the victims themselves for being attacked, claiming that they are the ones who decide to be different, or that they have done something that led to the attack ²⁷27. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63..

Although cyberbullying takes place in the online space, the attacks tend to be targeted to persons the attackers know in person ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,6464. Ševčíková A, Šmahel D, Otavová M. The perception of cyberbullying in adolescent victims. Emot Behav Diffic 2012; 17:319-28.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.. Adolescents’ use these practices to seek to build social belonging ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2727. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,4040. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,4141. Bryce J, Fraser J. The role of disclosure of personal information in the evaluation of risk and trust in young peoples' online interactions. Comput Human Behav 2014; 30:299-306.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,6464. Ševčíková A, Šmahel D, Otavová M. The perception of cyberbullying in adolescent victims. Emot Behav Diffic 2012; 17:319-28.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. That is, by making fun, they believe they can entertain their peers, build bonds, and obtain recognition that gives them social status ²⁷27. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,4040. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,4141. Bryce J, Fraser J. The role of disclosure of personal information in the evaluation of risk and trust in young peoples' online interactions. Comput Human Behav 2014; 30:299-306.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,6464. Ševčíková A, Šmahel D, Otavová M. The perception of cyberbullying in adolescent victims. Emot Behav Diffic 2012; 17:319-28.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. The scorekeeping is done by the bystanders, who approve the act by the number of “likes” or other devices that indicate approval of their posts on the networks ²⁷27. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,4141. Bryce J, Fraser J. The role of disclosure of personal information in the evaluation of risk and trust in young peoples' online interactions. Comput Human Behav 2014; 30:299-306.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5353. Keipi T, Oksanen A. Self-exploration, anonymity and risks in the online setting: analysis of narratives by 14-18-year olds. J Youth Stud 2014; 17:1097-113.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.. This strategy is easier to implement when the attacks are targeted to a person who already has a negative peer assessment, because bystanders are more likely to legitimize the aggression, and the victims lack strong interpersonal ties to defend them ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.. Attackers also attempt to include, as bystanders, members of their own social group that support the aggression ⁴⁷47. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,6464. Ševčíková A, Šmahel D, Otavová M. The perception of cyberbullying in adolescent victims. Emot Behav Diffic 2012; 17:319-28.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9..

The second reason for cyberbullying that we identified is revenge ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.. In this case, adolescents attack someone who has offended them in some way, especially in arguments ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.. Among the situations that give rise to revenge, they comment that it is common for adolescents who have suffered cyberbullying and/or school bullying to attack back at their aggressors ⁴³43. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.. They describe frequent victims of school bullying as odd, shy, and small ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.. In offline spaces, these physical characteristics express inequalities of power that are not present in the online space ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. They thus understand that the ICTs empower these persons to respond to the perpetrators with attacks ⁴⁷47. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.. When this happens, they feel that their behavior is justified, that is, it is legitimate for victims to act in self-defense with counterattacks ⁴³43. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.. In this sense, the online space is seen as a tool that allows individuals that have been victims of attacks in the offline space to counterattack in the online space ⁴⁷47. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503..

Adolescents as victims: experiences and reactions to attacks

For adolescents, cyberbullying is experienced as an attack that does not end with the act itself, because it persists in the online space and in the memory of the potential audience ²⁹29. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4040. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6363. O'Brien N, Moules T. Not sticks and stones but tweets and texts: findings from a national cyberbullying project. Pastor Care Educ 2013; 31:53-65.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. In a space where image represents a medium for experiencing one’s identity and values, practices aimed at disseminating photos and videos are perceived as more harmful than written or physical attacks ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5555. Radovic A, Gmelin T, Stein BD, Miller E. Depressed adolescents' positive and negative use of social media. J Adolesc 2017; 55:5-15.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. Thus, the mere presence of an audience aggravates the acts, because this kind of violence leaves a permanent stain on the individual’s online identity ²⁹29. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4040. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5555. Radovic A, Gmelin T, Stein BD, Miller E. Depressed adolescents' positive and negative use of social media. J Adolesc 2017; 55:5-15.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.. These conditions mean that the attack’s possible repetition is secondary, and that the adolescents feel that a single act is sufficient to feel hurt and humiliated ⁴⁹49. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55..

Victims feel powerless in the face of the aggression, because they cannot control the bystanders’ participation, eliminate the audiovisual material to stop its spread ²⁹29. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,6464. Ševčíková A, Šmahel D, Otavová M. The perception of cyberbullying in adolescent victims. Emot Behav Diffic 2012; 17:319-28., or escape the situation. That is, they cannot detain the posting of messages they receive ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4646. Varjas K, Meyers J, Kiperman S, Howard A. Technology hurts? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth perspectives of technology and cyberbullying. J Sch Violence 2013; 12:27-44.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.. The discomfort is worse if the aggressors act anonymously, since they do not understand who is attacking them or why ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4040. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503..

They often express anger towards their attackers over the humiliation and powerlessness by insults, spreading of rumors, or setting up specific webpages to expose them ²⁹29. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4747. Varjas K, Talley J, Meyers J, Parris L, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of motivations for cyberbullying: an exploratory study. West J Emerg Med 2010; 11:269-73.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.. Another way of reacting is to downplay the cyberbullying by depicting it as an ordinary practice or a joke that can happen to anyone that participates in this space ²⁷27. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4848. Dredge R, Gleeson JFM, de la Piedad Garcia X. Risk factors associated with impact severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:287-91.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13. They explain that acting as if it has not affected them prevents spreading rumors about it, and shows that it was not something to keep private, that is, it was not the object of shame or hiding ⁴⁵45. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13.

Despite their vulnerability, in the face of an attack, adolescents emphasize their wish to autonomously control the situation they are going through ⁴¹41. Bryce J, Fraser J. The role of disclosure of personal information in the evaluation of risk and trust in young peoples' online interactions. Comput Human Behav 2014; 30:299-306.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.. This position is seen in their resistance to talk about their experiences with adults ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13. They generally feel that adults fail to understand the online space, its values and practices, and their reactions cause new problems for them to deal with ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2929. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.. On the one hand, they refer to the possibility of experiencing other processes of victimization, based on complaints by parents to the school officials. Adolescents view the school’s conflict-resolution mechanisms as situations of exposure in which the victims feel they are on display ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.. Thus, the attackers realize they were denounced and may carry out new acts of aggression and social canceling ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. The second scenario relates to adults’ control of the adolescent’s online sociability. When adults intervene, some of their decisions aim to limit access to the electronic devices and/or supervise social network behavior in order to avoid new attacks ²⁹29. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,5959. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J. "The internet is a mask": high school students' suggestions for preventing cyberbullying. West J Emerg Med 2014; 15:587-92.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.. However, the possibility of being left out of their online sociability is something adolescents wish to avoid, because it means socially isolating themselves ²⁹29. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.. Therefore, they tend to only speak to adults if they feel they cannot handle the situation themselves and they fear for their safety ⁴³43. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,5959. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J. "The internet is a mask": high school students' suggestions for preventing cyberbullying. West J Emerg Med 2014; 15:587-92.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.. Otherwise, they prefer to seek backing and ask for advice from their peers or older siblings who understand the experiences because they are also part of the online space ²⁹29. Reason L, Boyd M, Reason C. Cyberbullying in rural communities: origin and processing through the lens of older adolescents. Qual Rep 2016; 21:2331-48.^,4040. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,5353. Keipi T, Oksanen A. Self-exploration, anonymity and risks in the online setting: analysis of narratives by 14-18-year olds. J Youth Stud 2014; 17:1097-113.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,5959. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J. "The internet is a mask": high school students' suggestions for preventing cyberbullying. West J Emerg Med 2014; 15:587-92.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.. Girls are more inclined than boys to request help. Boys are more reticent, including about talking with their peers, because it could be viewed as a sign of weakness. They feel they must appear strong, and one way of doing so is to manage the situation alone or to physically confront their attackers ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2727. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9..

While adolescents that are attacked sustain their online sociability, they tend to modify the ways they use the technologies ²⁷27. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,4141. Bryce J, Fraser J. The role of disclosure of personal information in the evaluation of risk and trust in young peoples' online interactions. Comput Human Behav 2014; 30:299-306.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5555. Radovic A, Gmelin T, Stein BD, Miller E. Depressed adolescents' positive and negative use of social media. J Adolesc 2017; 55:5-15.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.. They mainly reduce the personal exposure of information and photos ²⁷27. Berne S, Frisén A, Kling J. Appearance-related cyberbullying: a qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body Image 2014; 11:527-33.^,4141. Bryce J, Fraser J. The role of disclosure of personal information in the evaluation of risk and trust in young peoples' online interactions. Comput Human Behav 2014; 30:299-306.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5151. Betts LR, Spenser KA. "People think it's a harmless joke": young people's understanding of the impact of technology, digital vulnerability and cyberbullying in the United Kingdom. J Child Media 2017; 11:20-35.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5555. Radovic A, Gmelin T, Stein BD, Miller E. Depressed adolescents' positive and negative use of social media. J Adolesc 2017; 55:5-15.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306., learning security techniques with their accounts, and are more cautious in their interactions ⁵⁵55. Radovic A, Gmelin T, Stein BD, Miller E. Depressed adolescents' positive and negative use of social media. J Adolesc 2017; 55:5-15.^,5757. Šléglová V, Černá A. Cyberbullying in adolescent victims: perception and coping. Cyberpsychology 2011; 5:4.^,5959. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J. "The internet is a mask": high school students' suggestions for preventing cyberbullying. West J Emerg Med 2014; 15:587-92..

Adolescents as bystanders and their motivations for participating

Adolescents report that in the presence of an act of aggression, their intervention as bystanders depends on contextual aspects such as their ties with the victims and attackers, the type of aggression, and the gender of those involved ²⁸28. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. One of the reasons for taking so many variables into account is that to defend the victim also means exposing themselves to reprisals by the initial perpetrator, or by others ²⁶26. Brandau M, Evanson TA. Adolescent victims emerging from cyberbullying. Qual Health Res 2018; 28:1584-94.^,2828. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63..

Before deciding to intervene, they mention the need to gather as much information as possible about the acts. The risk of accusing or defending based on a misinterpretation would be a justification for criticism from their peers ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. This is because they access scenes that are part of a process they are unfamiliar with, so what appear to be attacks may actually be jokes between friends ⁴⁰40. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63., or they may not know if the protagonists were perpetrators or victims ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. When bystanders know the protagonists, it is simple for them to gather information, but when they do not, they prefer not to intervene ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63..

They generally report acting in favor of the victims, when these are their friends ²⁸28. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,6161. Pabian S, Erreygers S, Vandebosch H, Van Royen K, Dare J, Costello L, et al. "Arguments online, but in school we always act normal": the embeddedness of early adolescent negative peer interactions within the whole of their offline and online peer interactions. Child Youth Serv Rev 2018; 86:1-13^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. Even if they would prefer not to get involved for fear of being attacked themselves, they feel they have an obligation, since it affects them more to be socially castigated for not respecting the values of closeness than for being the target of attack ²⁸28. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. Since the peer groups tend to be those acting in favor, adolescents that do not belong to any group do not have peers to intervene in their defense or to contain the conflict, and are thus in a position of greater vulnerability ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5050. Law DM, Shapka JD, Domene JF, Gagné MH. Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Comput Human Behav 2012; 28:664-72.^,6565. Wright MF. Cybervictims' emotional responses, attributions, and coping strategies for cyber victimization: a qualitative approach. Safer Communities 2016; 15:160-9.^,6868. DeSmet A, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Poels K, Vandebosch H, De Bourdeaudhuij I. Mobilizing bystanders of cyberbullying: an exploratory study into behavioural determinants of defending the victim. Stud Health Technol Inform 2012; 181:58-63.. Nevertheless, some adolescents tend to act despite not having any ties. They do so motivated by a feeling of empathy, either because they have been victims themselves on previous occasions or because they see themselves with enough power to serve as references ²⁸28. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.. The bystanders’ social value thus comes into play ⁴⁴44. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.. When they enjoy good social status, defined as “popular” or “strong”, they are expected to act in favor of their friends and are criticized if they decide not to do so ²⁸28. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.. Meanwhile, bystanders that do not enjoy such status do not feel secure enough to intervene, for fear of also being attacked ²⁸28. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53..

To avoid acts that would expose them to further processes of victimization, adolescents report that they would participate more in defense of the victims if they could do so anonymously ²⁸28. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.^,5353. Keipi T, Oksanen A. Self-exploration, anonymity and risks in the online setting: analysis of narratives by 14-18-year olds. J Youth Stud 2014; 17:1097-113.. One strategy they consider is to approach the attackers and victims independently and in private, to avoid shaming or provoking them in public ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,5252. Bowler L, Knobel C, Mattern E. From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative-based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2015; 66:1274-93.. They also consider the severity of the attack. They tend not to intervene when they interpret the event as a joke among friends ⁴⁰40. Bryce J, Fraser J. "It's common sense that it's wrong": young people's perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:783-7.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4343. Connolly JP. Exploring the factors influencing gifted adolescents' resistance to report experiences of cyberbullying behavior: toward an improved understanding. J Educ Gift 2018; 41:136-59.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,4949. Nilan P, Burgess H, Hobbs M, Threadgold S, Alexander W. Youth, social media, and cyberbullying among australian youth: "sick friends". Soc Media Soc 2015; 1:205630511560484.^,5454. Baas N, de Jong MDT, Drossaert CHC. Children's perspectives on cyberbullying: insights based on participatory research. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2013; 16:248-53.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.. On the other hand, intervention is legitimized as the frequency or type of attack increases ²⁸28. Price D, Green D, Spears B, Scrimgeour M, Barnes A, Geer R, et al. A qualitative exploration of cyber-bystanders and moral engagement. J Psychol Couns Sch 2014; 24:1-17.^,4242. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,5858. Samoh N, Boonmongkon P, Ojanen TT, Samakkeekarom R, Jonas KJ, Guadamuz TE. 'It's an ordinary matter': perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. J Youth Stud 2019; 22:240-55.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.^,6767. Vandebosch H, Van Cleemput K. Defining cyberbullying: a qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychol Behav 2008; 11:499-503.. Repetition of the act, physical threats, and the perception that the victims are unable to defend themselves motivates bystanders to intervene ⁴²42. DeSmet A, Veldeman C, Poels K, Bastiaensens S, Van Cleemput K, Vandebosch H, et al. Determinants of self-reported bystander behavior in cyberbullying incidents amongst adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2014; 17:207-15.^,4444. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,6262. Pelfrey Jr. WV, Weber NL. Student and school staff strategies to combat cyberbullying in an urban student population. Prev Sch Fail 2015; 59:227-36.. Finally, bystanders take gender into account to determine their action. Adolescent girls are more inclined to express the emotions triggered by cyberbullying, and the attempt to defend themselves results from long and complex struggles to include other persons in the discussion, while boys are more reserved and downplay the attack’s effects on their lives ⁴⁴44. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83.^,4545. Stacey E. Research into cyberbullying: student perspectives on cybersafe learning environments. Informatics in Education 2009; 8:115-30.^,5656. Ging D, O'Higgins Norman J. Cyberbullying, conflict management or just messing? Teenage girls' understandings and experiences of gender, friendship, and conflict on Facebook in an Irish second-level school. Fem Media Stud 2016; 16:805-21.^,6060. Parris L, Varjas K, Meyers J, Cutts H. High school students' perceptions of coping with cyberbullying. Youth Soc 2012; 44:284-306.. Thus, female victims tend to try not to get involved or to do so through private messages ⁴⁴44. Patterson LJ, Allan A, Cross D. Adolescent perceptions of bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. New Media Soc 2017; 19:366-83..

Presentation of the synthesis: cyberbullying as an expression of online sociability

Goffman ³²32. Goffman E. La presentación de la persona en la vida cotidiana. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 1994. states that persons in daily sociability behave like actors that play roles intended to meet certain expectations towards them. In their actions, they tend to appear as people expect them to, choosing certain personal attributes and hiding others that tend to discredit them. Thus, interaction always involves the representation of a façade of oneself adjusted to the social expectations related to each actor’s position, identity, and intentions. We can say that social networks act as the façade where adolescents are constantly acting out themselves. The personal material posted on social networks is built for the audience comprising the online space and is made available for the audience to express what they think about it through clicks, sharing, and “likes”. Competition for recognition thus rages in the social networks, translated as symbolic and social capital for those who obtain it ⁶⁹69. Bourdieu P, Wacquant L. Una invitación a la sociología reflexiva. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI; 2005.. For adolescents, the importance of gaining recognition is related to identity-building, whereby they can define who they are based on feedback from others on their posts, because “the self” is built as a product of this interaction ³²32. Goffman E. La presentación de la persona en la vida cotidiana. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 1994..

According to their capital, adolescents occupy certain positions in their sociability and establish power relations permeated by expectations of mutual recognition. In this context, we view cyberbullying as one of the mechanisms by which adolescents organize, produce, and reproduce power positions attributed by recognition through acts of identification with and differentiation from their peers ³⁴34. Giménez G. La discriminación desde la perspectiva del reconocimiento social. Revista de Investigación Social 2005; 1:31-45.^,3535. Tomasini M. Hacerse el malo: interacciones cotidianas entre estudiantes varones de primer año de escuelas secundarias de Córdoba, Argentina. Sex Salud Soc (Rio J.) 2013; (15):86-112.^,3737. Ringrose J, Renold E. Normative cruelties and gender deviants: the performative effects of bully discourses for girls and boys in school. Br Educ Res J 2010; 36:573-96.. Focusing on the various practices with which cyberbullying is carried out, we find that the characteristic permeating them is that the aim is to damage the target’s image and social status. The intention is not merely to “do harm”; it is to harm identity by assigning a negative and critical value to aspects of the person’s body, aesthetic production, personality, and behavior. In Goffman’s ³²32. Goffman E. La presentación de la persona en la vida cotidiana. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 1994. terms, we can say that the attack aims to discredit the façade displayed by other adolescents.

We identified, in the corpus, the motivations that trigger cyberbullying. The first involves the ways peer recognition comes into play, based on the built-up façades. As highlighted by Goffman ³²32. Goffman E. La presentación de la persona en la vida cotidiana. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 1994., the audience believe in the role they are playing, but they also evaluate and judge whether it is adequate, based on their behavioral expectations. According to Butler ³⁸38. Butler J. Actos performativos y constitución del género: un ensayo sobre fenomenología y teoría feminista. Debate Feminista 1998; 18:296-314., the body’s engenderment lies in conventions that sanction and proscribe how each person performs their own body. Following Butler, we can say that cyberbullying also reflects the surveillance and judgment of gender acts. Through it, adolescents sanction the attributes and behaviors that transgress the ideals comprising their valuative repertoires ⁷⁰70. Noel G. De los códigos a los repertorios: algunos atavismos persistentes acerca de la cultura y una propuesta de reformulación. Revista Latinoamericana de Metodología de las Ciencias Sociales 2013; 3:1-30.. In pursuit of their identity, the ideals operate as their referential margins, as the point they hope to reach. They thus criticize aspects whose values they reject, with which they do not identify. Thus, the findings show that adolescents rationalize attacks targeted to these persons. In some cases, they hold the victims accountable for not behaving as they should, and in other cases, while they do not agree with the attack (that is, they do not think it is right, nor would they do it themselves), they do understand why it is happening.

The second motivation is revenge. That is, the attacks are used to resolve a prior conflict to sanction persons that threatened their expectations of recognition ³⁶36. Honneth A. La lucha por el reconocimiento: por una gramática moral de los conflictos sociales. Barcelona: Crítica; 1997.. When the adolescents’ worth is placed in check, they seek to restore it via the aggression by discrediting another’s image for an audience. According to Gimenez ³⁴34. Giménez G. La discriminación desde la perspectiva del reconocimiento social. Revista de Investigación Social 2005; 1:31-45., individuals occupying dominated positions either accept the dominant definition of their identity or rebel to be able to challenge the value scale that puts them in a devalued position. In such cases, the online space offers them a medium to resist, because physical distance and anonymity protects them from continuing to be victimized and offers them the conditions to attempt to change positions in their recognition.

We observed that the motivations included the struggle for recognition, through a process of identification by opposition, by which I am what the other is not. As observed by Goffman ³³33. Goffman E. Estigma: La identidad deteriorada. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 2006., when a discrediting attribute is attached to a person - a stigma - the other’s normality is also confirmed. Thus, in the act of aggression, adolescents establish an opposition and position themselves hierarchically vis-à-vis another person, invoking dominant discourses ³⁴34. Giménez G. La discriminación desde la perspectiva del reconocimiento social. Revista de Investigación Social 2005; 1:31-45.^,3737. Ringrose J, Renold E. Normative cruelties and gender deviants: the performative effects of bully discourses for girls and boys in school. Br Educ Res J 2010; 36:573-96.. If the aggression is legitimized by their peers, aggressors recover for themselves the value of defending the dominant valuative repertoires and thereby obtain or sustain social and symbolic capital. Meanwhile, the attacked persons lose this capital and are left in a position of inferiority and/or exclusion from the view of others ³⁴34. Giménez G. La discriminación desde la perspectiva del reconocimiento social. Revista de Investigación Social 2005; 1:31-45.. From this perspective, the aggression is not static, nor does it establish fixed positions. It should be viewed as a dynamic process with constant vying for peer recognition, affirmation of identity, and positions to occupy in sociability. Cyberbullying can thus feature alternating roles. Those in a position of inferiority in one scene may attempt to change their position in another ³⁴34. Giménez G. La discriminación desde la perspectiva del reconocimiento social. Revista de Investigación Social 2005; 1:31-45..

Regarding bystanders, we found that when they support the attack, they assume that they are bearers of social standards that they defend and thus seek recognition for their position. However, when they do not support the attack, insofar as possible they prefer not to get involved, because it exposes them to attack as well. This happens when they confuse friendly kidding with an attack. If they intervene believing that it is an attack, the reaction by the attackers will not only be critical but will also highlight that they do not belong to the group that understands the meaning of the joke. That is, failure to understand is tantamount to not belonging, and for them this means disclosing their position in the configuration of relations. By intervening, they wage their social and symbolic capital, due both to reactions by the attackers and the attacked, and by the judgement of the audience, because their action is permanently recorded in online space. They thus report that they are more willing to participate privately, that is, making contact in person or via a private chat with the attackers and attacked. This allows them to intervene without compromising their capital in the eyes of their audience or their position in the framework of sociability.

Factors that call on them to intervene publicly are group belonging and the type of attack. Members of the attacked person’s group are expected to come to their defense. If the help comes via private channels, the victims may feel supported by their close ties, although this does not eliminate the harm caused by the public exposure of material that attacks their identity. Thus, the attacked individuals wish their peers to intervene publicly to show the audience that they are backed by persons willing to defend them. If their peers fail to intervene, other bystanders may criticize them for failing to honor the duty required by the bond they have with the attacked person. Regarding the attack’s severity, the adolescents’ symbolic repertoires describe attacks with different degrees of tolerance. Some are taken for granted because of their frequency (usually insults) or are not considered sufficiently intolerable for them to wage their capital on some action. When they believe the attacks are intolerable according to their repertoires, they are more willing to intervene, even when the victim does not belong to their own group.

Victims of cyberbullying are exposed to situations of humiliation with an audience. If the audience legitimizes the aggression, the victim’s self-image with which they expected to be valued is discredited and altered ³²32. Goffman E. La presentación de la persona en la vida cotidiana. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 1994.^,3333. Goffman E. Estigma: La identidad deteriorada. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 2006.. The adolescents feel shame, sadness, insecurity, depression, and social isolation due to this victimization. Damage to the persons’ value has implications for their ways of forging bonds, by altering their self-esteem and their perception of other people´s expectations towards them ³²32. Goffman E. La presentación de la persona en la vida cotidiana. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 1994.^,3333. Goffman E. Estigma: La identidad deteriorada. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 2006.. Thus, cyberbullying modifies their social position in the configuration of peer relations. Since the attack persists, recorded in the online space, they feel that the damage is permanent. The attack can be inscribed as a stigma, because when they meet new persons, the adolescents fear that they may have seen (or may see in the future) the material that tarnishes their image ³³33. Goffman E. Estigma: La identidad deteriorada. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 2006.. Goffman ³²32. Goffman E. La presentación de la persona en la vida cotidiana. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 1994. emphasizes that individuals do not present themselves the same way in all social groups, because they have different expectations of behavior. The attack’s persistence prevents individuals from making use of this segmentation and control of the impressions, so they lose autonomy and security in their social interaction. The attack becomes a stigma, forcing them to control the presentation of their personal attributes, on grounds that others may identify them as discreditable ³³33. Goffman E. Estigma: La identidad deteriorada. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu; 2006..

Once their social recognition is damaged, adolescents may seek to repair it using various alternatives (not necessarily mutually exclusive) ³⁶36. Honneth A. La lucha por el reconocimiento: por una gramática moral de los conflictos sociales. Barcelona: Crítica; 1997.. They may seek support and backing (recognition) in their group of belonging, they may ignore the attack and pretend that their dignity was not harmed (for example, taking it as ordinary kidding), or they may respond to their attackers and seek recognition from their peers to sanction the aggressive behavior.

While victims may decrease their participation in social networks, they do not avoid them entirely. This suggests the importance of online space in their sociability. They may refrain from posting information to avoid exposing themselves to attacks, but they continue to watch what happens, while participating more cautiously. Their desire to stay online relates to the importance of feeling that they belong to groups. They thus prefer to seek backing from their peer groups. Adolescent girls are more inclined than their male counterparts to seek help. Boys tend more to withstand the aggression or respond with physical counterattacks. This attitude is related to stereotypical masculinity, which requires one to display strength and courage ³⁵35. Tomasini M. Hacerse el malo: interacciones cotidianas entre estudiantes varones de primer año de escuelas secundarias de Córdoba, Argentina. Sex Salud Soc (Rio J.) 2013; (15):86-112..

Conceiving cyberbullying as a unique expression of online sociability aims to acknowledge identity-building processes through the recognition provided by persons with whom one interacts and the competition for such recognition and configuration of power relations among adolescents.

Final remarks

A meta-ethnography is complete when it succeeds in identifying a synthesis in a set of texts, the meaning of which both contains and transcends them ³⁰30. Noblit G, Hare R. Meta-ethnography: synthesizing qualitative studies. Newbury Park: SAGE Publications; 1988.. The current meta-ethnography allowed summarizing the findings from 33 studies that complement and reinforce each other, building a line of argument that provides a more complete view of cyberbullying through the three most common roles played by its protagonists. The results are significant for the field of collective health, providing theoretical elements for understanding this violence among adolescents, to discuss and design public policies to deal with it, and to generate new questions for more in-depth study of cyberbullying.

The results show that the common characteristic in the expressions of cyberbullying is the intent to attack the victims’ social value. To analyze it, we addressed identity-building as a constant process stemming from the recognition awarded by others. In this framework, we contend that cyberbullying is exercised as an identity-building mechanism, based on processes of peer identification and opposition. That is, by discrediting a person due to an attribute of their personality, aesthetic production, behavior, and sexuality, the aggressor marks a difference and displays identification with the opposite attributes (in relation to the target). Second, we found that in this process, cyberbullying both reproduces and competes for positions of recognition; discrediting a person in the eyes of an audience and affecting the sources of social value that sustain this position. Third, cyberbullying is a punitive practice against transgressions of a dominant socio-symbolic order, because it sanctions and legitimizes specific forms of being and acting. Based on the above, we contend that cyberbullying is not a new violence, but a new expression of types of violence already rooted in processes of identification, power, and gender.

The proposal to analyze cyberbullying via symbolic interactionism and disputes for recognition is an innovative alternative in the field of study. Most of the studies provide explanations based on the construction of epidemiological profiles and predictive models of behavior, based on theories such as general stress, moral disengagement, planned behavior, and bystander effect ⁵5. Espelage D, Rao M, Craven R. Theories of cyberbullying. In: Bauman S, Cross D, Walker J, editors. Principles of cyberbullying research: definitions, measures, and methodology. New York: Routledge; 2015. p. 49-64.^,1414. Baldry AC, Farrington DP, Sorrentino A. »,» ®,® §,§ ­,­ ¹,¹ ²,² ³,³ ß,ß Þ,Þ þ,þ ×,× Ú,Ú ú,ú Û,Û û,û Ù,Ù ù,ù ¨,¨ Ü,Ü ü,ü Ý,Ý ý,ý ¥,¥ ÿ,ÿ ¶,¶ Am I at risk of cyberbullying »,» ®,® §,§ ­,­ ¹,¹ ²,² ³,³ ß,ß Þ,Þ þ,þ ×,× Ú,Ú ú,ú Û,Û û,û Ù,Ù ù,ù ¨,¨ Ü,Ü ü,ü Ý,Ý ý,ý ¥,¥ ÿ,ÿ ¶,¶ ? A narrative review and conceptual framework for research on risk of cyberbullying and cybervictimization: the risk and needs assessment approach. Aggress Violent Behav 2015; 23:36-51.^,1616. Pabian S, Vandebosch H. Using the theory of planned behaviour to understand cyberbullying: The importance of beliefs for developing interventions. Eur J Dev Psychol 2014; 11:463-77.^,1818. Paez GR. Cyberbullying among adolescents: a general strain theory perspective. J Sch Violence 2018; 17:74-85.^,1919. Meter DJ, Bauman S. Moral disengagement about cyberbullying and parental monitoring: Effects on traditional bullying and victimization via cyberbullying involvement. J Early Adolesc 2018; 38:303-26.. These perspectives tend to individualize and medicalize the causes of cyberbullying and assign a central role to the online space (especially anonymity) as a determinant factor, rather than identifying how adolescents make use of the online space and how cyberbullying intertwines in their sociability.

Consistent with these predominant explanations, current policies to prevent cyberbullying mostly involve lectures on the “risks” of internet exposure, recommendations for the protection of personal data, and strong encouragement for parental supervision of their children’s online sociability ²⁴24. Pérez JC, Astudillo J, Varela TJ, Lecannelier AF. Evaluación de la efectividad del programa vínculos para la prevención e intervención del bullying en Santiago de Chile. Psicol Esc Educ 2013; 17:163-72.^,2525. Nocentini A, Zambuto V, Menesini E. Anti-bullying programs and information and communication technologies (ICTs): a systematic review. Aggress Violent Behav 2015; 23:52-60.^,7171. Ministerio de Justicia y Derechos Humanos. Ciberbullying: guía práctica para adultos. http://www.jus.gob.ar/media/1039016/guiacyberbullying.pdf (accedido el 01/Abr/2020).
http://www.jus.gob.ar/media/1039016/guia... ^,7272. Ang RP. Adolescent cyberbullying: a review of characteristics, prevention and intervention strategies. Aggress Violent Behav 2015; 25:35-42.. However, these preventive measures appear insufficient or scarcely adequate. Partly, because we find that adolescents try to hide their experiences with cyberbullying to avoid being controlled or prevented from online sociability, so that adults’ participation should be based on the understanding of the role of online space in their lives rather than based on sanctions or restrictions. Besides, adolescents are apparently not ignorant of the risks or the means to protect themselves; rather, the aggressions are learned and rooted in their sociability through the search for recognition and relations of peer identification and opposition. Therefore, to provide information on risks and consequences for health, to increase parental supervision, and to reduce adolescents´ participation are insufficient recommendations for addressing the core problem. Rather, we contend that public policies should focus on ways to produce recognition among adolescents other than via differences and competition with their peers by discrediting one another’s identity. We thus highlight the need to design policies incorporating the perspective of the intended target population.

Finally, the meta-ethnography allowed identifying cross-sectional patterns in cyberbullying and pools of knowledge on this aggression. While we identified gender differences in the articles’ findings on practices and discourses of boys and girls, none of the studies took the gender perspective as the methodological and analytical construction. Future research could focus on how cyberbullying is constructed and expressed in ways of producing gender identities, performing case studies with a view towards all the persons involved to reconstruct the process of aggression, and analyzing how the characteristics of online sociability enable and legitimize this violence.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the Institute of Collective Health of Nacional University of Lanus, the Argentine National Council for Scientific and Technological Research (CONICET), and the Latin-American Center for Studies on Violence and Health of Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz) for supporting this study.

References

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