• Una nueva revista de salud pública para las Américas Editorial

    Alleyne, George
  • La ecología de Vibrio cholerae serogrupo 01 en ambientes acuáticos Artículos

    Borroto, René J.

    Resumo em Espanhol:

    El carácter endémico y estacional del cólera depende de la supervivencia de Vibrio cholerae serogrupo 01 en estado viable, pero no necesariamente cultivable, en nichos ecológicos localizados en ambientes acuáticos durante períodos interepidémicos. Para comprender la ecología de V. cholerae es preciso conocer los ecosistemas acuáticos que pudieran albergarlo y contribuir a la presencia endémica del cólera en América Latina. El presente artículo tiene por objetivo presentar, en términos resumidos, la ecología de V. cholerae 01 organizada según los factores abióticos y bióticos que desempeñan funciones relevantes en la supervivencia del microbio en ambientes acuáticos. Este agente patógeno encuentra condiciones favorables en aguas caracterizadas por niveles moderados de salinidad, un alto contenido de nutrientes, temperaturas cálidas, un pH neutro o ligeramente alcalino y la presencia de macrófitas acuáticas, fitoplancton, zooplancton, peces, moluscos y crustáceos. Estas condiciones ecológicas son propias de los ecosistemas acuáticos de estuarios y pantanos costeros, de cuya flora microbiana V. cholerae 01 toxígeno se considera actualmente un miembro autóctono. Este microorganismo también se ha mostrado capaz de colonizar ecosistemas de agua dulce en su forma viable, aunque no necesariamente cultivable, si encuentra sustratos orgánicos e inorgánicos que favorezcan su supervivencia.

    Resumo em Inglês:

    The endemic and seasonal nature of cholera depends upon the survival of Vibrio cholerae 01 in a viable but not necessarily culturable state in ecologic niches in aquatic environments during interepidemic periods. To understand the ecology of V. cholerae it is necessary to know which aquatic ecosystems can harbor it and thus contribute to the endemic presence of cholera in Latin America. This article presents a summary of the ecology of V. cholerae 01, organized according to the abiotic and biotic factors that are relevant to the microbe's survival in aquatic environments. This pathogen finds favorable conditions in waters characterized by moderate salinity, high nutrient content, warm temperature, neutral or slightly alkaline pH, and the presence of aquatic macrophytes, phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, mollusks, and crustaceans. These ecologic conditions are typical of estuaries and coastal swamps, and toxigenic V. cholerae 01 is now considered an authochthonous member of the microbial flora of these environments. The microorganism has also shown the ability to colonize fresh-water ecosystems in its viable but not necessarily culturable form, if organic or inorganic substrates that favor its survival are available.
  • Acute respiratory illnesses in the first 18 months of life Articles

    López Bravo, Ilse M.; Sepúlveda, Haydeé; Valdés, Isabel

    Resumo em Espanhol:

    Para conocer las causas y frecuencia de las enfermedades respiratorias agudas (ERA) durante los primeros 18 meses de vida en una población chilena, se siguió, en un consultorio urbano del norte de Santiago, a una cohorte de 437 niños nacidos sanos entre mayo de 1991 y abril de 1992. La información se obtuvo de los controles médicos realizados en el consultorio, del servicio de urgencia y de médicos particulares, así como de entrevistas a las madres al incorporar a los niños en el estudio y a los 6, 12 y 18 meses del seguimiento. Completaron el seguimiento 379 niños (87%). Las ERA constituyeron 67% de los 3762 episodios de enfermedad registrados en los niños durante el período de 18 meses, 1384 (55%) de las vías altas y 1144 (45%) de las bajas. La tasa total de ERA fue de 33 episodios por 100 meses-niño de observación. Las incidencias de ERA alta y baja, y el total de episodios descendieron significativamente durante los terceros 6 meses de edad. Se encontró una asociación estadísticamente significativa entre la ERA alta ( > o = 2 episodios) y la escolaridad de la madre (< 8 años), antecedentes familiares de atopia y viviendas en malas condiciones. La ERA baja ( > o = 4 episodios) se asoció significativamente con esos factores y además con la existencia de uno o más hermanos, haber nacido en un mes frío, haber recibido lactancia materna menos de 4 meses y pertenecer a un bajo estrato socioeconómico. Los episodios de bronquitis obstructiva se asociaron significativamente con la mayor parte de los factores de riesgo (sexo, hermanos, mes de nacimiento, duración de la lactancia, escolaridad materna, familiares que fumaban, uso de combustibles contaminantes en el hogar y antecedentes familiares de atopia). De modo similar, hubo asociaciones significativas entre la neumonía y muchos factores de riesgo (hermanos, mes de nacimiento, duración de la lactancia, escolaridad materna, familiares que fumaban y condición socio-económica). En general, 42 niños fueron hospitalizados durante el período de estudio por ERA bajas y 2 niños murieron de neumonía en el hogar antes de cumplir los 6 meses. La tasa de hospitalizaciones disminuyó significativamente a medida que aumentó la edad.

    Resumo em Inglês:

    To help assess the causes and frequency of acute respiratory illnesses (ARI) during the first 18 months of life in Chile, a cohort of 437 children born in good health between May 1991 and April 1992 was followed at an urban health clinic in northern Santiago. Information was obtained from medical checkups performed at the clinic, from emergency health care services, from private physicians, and from interviews with each child's mother when the child was enrolled in the study and when it was 6, 12, and 18 months old. Followup was completed for 379 (87%) of the children. ARI accounted for 67% of all 3762 episodes of illness recorded for these children in the 18-month study period, 1384 (55%) of the ARI episodes affecting the upper respiratory tract and the remaining 1144 (45%) affecting the lower. The overall rate of ARI observed was 33 episodes per 100 child-months of observation. The incidences of upper, lower, and total ARI episodes decreased significantly in the third six months of life. A statistically significant association was found between upper ARI ( > or = 2 episodes) and maternal smoking ( > or = 5 cigarettes per day), but no significant associations were found with any of the other risk factors studied. However, lower ARI ( > or = 2 episodes) was significantly associated with maternal schooling (<8 years), a family history of atopic allergy, and substandard housing conditions; and lower ARI ( > or = 4 episodes) was significantly associated with these factors and also with the existence of one or more siblings, birth in a cold season, limited breast-feeding (<4 months), and low socioeconomic status. Significant associations were found between obstructive bronchitis episodes and most of the risk factors studied (gender, siblings, season of birth, duration of breast-feeding, maternal schooling, smoking, use of polluting fuels in the home, and a family history of atopic allergy); similarly, significant associations were found between the occurrence of pneumonia and many risk factors (including siblings, season of birth, duration of breast-feeding, maternal schooling, smoking, and socioeconomic level). Overall, 42 of the study children were hospitalized during the study period for lower tract ARI, and two children died of pneumonia at home during their first 6 months of life. The rate of hospitalization fell significantly with increasing age.
  • Indicadores da saúde materna e infantil: implicações da décima revisão da Classificação Internacional de Doenças

    Laurenti, Ruy; Buchalla, Cássia Maria

    Resumo em Português:

    Desde o final da década de 40, quando a Organização Mundial da Saúde assumiu a responsabilidade pelas revisões decenais da Classificação de Causas de Morte, a Classificação passou a incorporar doenças e definições de uso em estatísticas vitais, resultando na Sexta Classificação Internacional de Doenças (CID-6). A mais recente revisão deste documento, a Classificação Estatística Internacional de Doenças e de Problemas Relacionados à Saúde (CID-10), apresenta as mudanças mais significativas desde a CID-6, principalmente no que se refere à área materno-infantil. Entre as mudanças introduzidas pela CID-10 estão a inclusão do tétano obstétrico no capítulo sobre doenças infecciosas, o que facilitará o registro dessa causa de morte materna; a incorporação de novas definições, por exemplo, morte materna tardia; e a redefinição de período perinatal, que a partir da CID-10 começa na 22ª semana de gestação e termina sete dias completos depois do nascimento. O presente artigo pretende destacar essas mudanças e discutir suas conseqüências para a apresentação e interpretação de indicadores utilizados na avaliação da saúde materno-infantil.

    Resumo em Inglês:

    Since the end of the 1940s, when the World Health Organization assumed responsibility for the decennial revisions of the Classification of Causes of Death, the Classification came to include diseases and definitions of use in vital statistics, resulting in the Sixth International Classification of Diseases (ICD-6). The most recent revision of this work, the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), is more significantly different than any revision since ICD-6, especially in the area of maternal and child health. Among the changes introduced in ICD-10 are the inclusion of obstetrical tetanus in the chapter on infectious diseases, which will facilitate the recording of this cause of maternal death; the incorporation of new definitions, such as late maternal death; and the redefinition of the perinatal period, which ICD-10 defines as starting at 22 completed weeks of gestation and ending 7 completed days after birth. This article seeks to highlight these changes and to discuss their consequences for the presentation and interpretation of indicators used in the evaluation of maternal and child health.
  • Producción de artículos científicos sobre salud en seis países de América Latina, 1973 a 1992 Artículos

    Pellegrini Filho, Alberto; Goldbaum, Moisés; Silvi, John

    Resumo em Espanhol:

    Con objeto de observar las tendencias de la investigación sobre salud en América Latina, se analizó la producción de artículos resultantes de investigaciones biomédicas, clínicas y de salud pública originadas en Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Cuba, México y Venezuela de 1973 a 1992, inclusive. De la base de datos del Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), se recuperaron 41 238 artículos con primeros autores residentes en esos países. Esta producción se analizó por área de estudio, tipo de investigación, país, número de autores e instituciones que participaron en la investigación, y citaciones recibidas por cada artículo. Se hizo también un análisis de 95 artículos en epidemiología seleccionados de 570 publicados por autores de los seis países en 11 revistas de salud pública de gran prestigio internacional. Los resultados muestran que el número de trabajos publicados aumentó 117% entre el primero y último quinquenios. La investigación clínica tuvo la distribución más homogénea entre los países y la de salud pública, la más concentrada (60,7% se originó en el Brasil). Los artículos de investigación biomédica y de salud pública tuvieron un crecimiento relativamente mayor que los de investigación clínica a lo largo del período. Se observó una disminución relativa de artículos de un solo autor -lo que sugiere trabajo en equipo más frecuente- y un aumento de artículos con autores vinculados a dos o más instituciones nacionales o extranjeras, lo cual indica mayor cooperación entre instituciones y países. El promedio de citaciones recibidas por artículo fue 3, lo que corresponde a menos de la mitad de las que reciben los artículos de la base del ISI (7,78). En cuanto al subconjunto de los 95 artículos de epidemiología, la gran mayoría (96%) trataban de enfermedades infecciosas o del área maternoinfantil, mientras que en la literatura internacional 78% de los artículos estaban dedicados a las enfermedades crónicas. En este conjunto se observó más cooperación con instituciones extranjeras y un índice de 4,36 citaciones por artículo. Se concluye que, pese a las limitaciones inherentes a este tipo de estudio, se pudieron notar algunas tendencias generales del desarrollo de la investigación en los seis países con mayor producción científica de América Latina y formular hipótesis sobre los factores que determinan esas tendencias. Tomados con cautela, los resultados de estudios de este tipo pueden ser de gran valor al definir políticas de ciencia y tecnología en salud.

    Resumo em Inglês:

    The production of articles resulting from biomedical, clinical, and public health studies that originated in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Mexico, and Venezuela from 1973 through 1992 was analyzed to discover trends in health research in Latin America. From the database of the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), 41 238 articles with first authors who resided in those countries were extracted. These articles were analyzed by subject area, type of study, country, number of authors and institutions that participated in the investigation, and citations received by each article. Also analyzed were 95 articles in epidemiology selected from a pool of 570 published by authors from the six countries in 11 public health journals that enjoy international prestige. The results showed that the number of published works increased by 117% between the first and last five-year periods within the study period. Clinical research was distributed the most evenly among the countries, and public health research was the most concentrated (60.7% originated in Brazil). The numbers of biomedical and public health research articles showed relatively more growth than those reporting on clinical research throughout the period. A relative decrease was found in articles by only one author, which suggests a greater frequency of team efforts, and an increase was seen in articles with authors tied to two or more national or foreign institutions, which indicates greater cooperation between institutions and countries. The average number of citations received by each article was 3, which was less than half the number received by the articles in the ISI database (7.78). Regarding the subset of 95 articles in epidemiology, the great majority (96%) dealt with infectious diseases or maternal and child health, while in the international literature 78% of such articles were about chronic diseases. This group of articles gave evidence of more cooperation with international institutions and had a citation index of 4.36 per article. It is concluded that, despite the inherent limitations, this type of study reveals some general trends in the development of research in the six Latin American countries with the greatest scientific production and makes it possible to formulate hypotheses on the factors that influence these trends. Taken with the proper caution, the results of studies like this one can be of great value in defining health science and technology policies.
  • Freqüência de gestantes portadoras do HBsAg em uma comunidade brasileira Articles

    Duarte, Geraldo; Mussi-Pinhata, Marisa Márcia; Martinez, Roberto; Lemos, Cláudia; Figueiredo, Eduardo M. Leite; Quintana, Silvana Maria

    Resumo em Português:

    Visando aferir a tasa de reatividade sérica do HBsAg e de outros marcadores da infecção pelo VHB em parturientes, além de avaliar quais os fatores de risco, estudaram-se 7992 mulheres que tiveram suas gestações resolvidas no Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade de São Paulo. A reatividade sérica do HBsAg foi aferida por o teste ELISA em duas etapas: a primeira com período de incubação de 2 h (triagem) e a segunda de 18 horas (confirmatória) realizada nas amostras positivas ao triagem. Os marcadores anti-HBsAg, HBeAg, anti-HBeAg, e anti-HBcAg foram testados nas amostras confirmadamente positivas. No triagem, foram positivas para o HBsAg 1,05% (IC95%; 0,84-1,30) das amostras. Apenas 0,95% (IC95%; 0,75-1,19) foram confirmadamente positivas, sendo significativamente superior nas pacientes cujas gestações terminaram em aborto (1,84%) do que as 0,84% que terminaram em parto (chi2 correção de Yates = 7,76; P < 0,005). A anamnese possibilitou identificar fatores de risco para a infecção pelo VHB em apenas 27,6% das pacientes avaliadas. Dessas amostras, 21,3% (IC95%; 1,04-30,56) apresentavam HBeAg positivo, de elevado risco para transmissão vertical desse vírus. Esses resultados reforçam a necessidade de pesquisa sorológica específica no final da gestação, possibilitando o máximo benefício da imunoprofilaxia neonatal.

    Resumo em Inglês:

    The work reported here points up the real benefits provided by neonatal immunoprophylaxis of newborns delivered by mothers who are seropositive for the hepatitis B virus surface antigen HBsAg and underscores the need to properly identify such mothers in Brazil so that immunoprophylaxis can be undertaken. To help determine levels of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and seropositivity for various HBV markers among pregnant women in Southeast Brazil, investigators studied 7992 pregnant women delivering at the Clinical Hospital of the University of São Paulo's Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. Seroreactivity for HBsAg was determined first by serologic screening with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) procedure in which the sera were incubated for 2 hours and then by confirmation with another ELISA in which the sera were incubated for 18 hours. Subsequently, tests for anti-HBsAg, HBeAg, anti-HBeAg, and anti-HBcAg markers were conducted using confirmed positive samples. Initial screening found 84 of the 7992 samples (1.05%, 95% CI: 0.84-1.30) to be positive for HBsAg; however, this HBsAg positivity was confirmed in only 76 (0.95%, 95% CI: 0.75-1.19). The positivity rate was significantly higher among subjects whose pregnancies terminated in miscarriage (1.84%) than among those with live births (0.83%) (chi2, Yates correction = 7.6; P = 0.005). Anamnesis was able to identify HBV risk factors in only 27.6% of the confirmed HBsAg-positive subjects or close household contacts. However, 21.3% (95% CI: 1.04-30.56) of the confirmed HBsAg-positive subjects were found positive for HBeAg, indicating a high risk of vertical transmission of the virus. These results demonstrate a need to conduct specific serologic research at term, in order to provide effective neonatal immunoprophylactic benefits.
  • Una prueba de captura rápida de antígenos con tiras reactivas para el diagnóstico de malaria por P. falciparum Artículos

    Resumo em Espanhol:

    Los avances recientes en el diagnóstico de infecciones causadas por Plasmodium falciparum han permitido considerar la posibilidad de complementar la microscopia óptica con una prueba estandarizada de captura de antígenos con tiras reactivas basada en la detección de una proteína específica del parásito, que es segregada por los estadios sanguíneos asexuados y los gametocitos inmaduros, pero no por otros estadios. Los ensayos de campo indican que esta prueba proporciona resultados replicables con un umbral de detección de parasitemia de P. falciparum similar al obtenido con microscopia habitual de alta calidad para malaria y una especificidad y sensibilidad de alrededor de 90% en comparación con la microscopia habitual con extensión de sangre en capa gruesa. La estabilidad, reproducibilidad y facilidad de uso de la prueba indican claramente sus posibilidades de aplicación en el tratamiento de la malaria, particularmente en el nivel de atención de salud periférico, siempre y cuando se pueda garantizar su precisión y su costo sea módico. También debe considerarse la posibilidad de usarla más ampliamente donde lo justifiquen los requisitos operativos y los recursos y donde las decisiones se basen en una evaluación adecuada de los sistemas de prestación de asistencia de salud existentes.

    Resumo em Inglês:

    Recent advances in the diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum infections have made it possible to consider supplementing light microscopy with a standardized dipstick antigen capture assay based on the detection of a parasite-specific protein, which is secreted by the asexual blood stages and immature gametocytes but not by the other stages. Field trials indicate that this dipstick assay provides consistently reproducible results, with a threshold of detection of P. falciparum parasitaemia similar to that obtained by high quality routine malaria microscopy and a specificity and sensitivity of around 90% compared with standard thick blood film microscopy. The stability, reproducibility, and ease of use of the assay clearly indicate that it has potential for application in the management of malaria, particularly at the peripheral health care level, provided its accuracy can be assured and that it can be made affordable. Consideration should be given to its wider use where operational requirements and resources so justify, and where decisions are based on adequate evaluation of the existing health delivery systems.
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    Valenzuela H., Pedro
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    Ruiz, Alfonso
Organización Panamericana de la Salud Washington - Washington - United States
E-mail: contacto_rpsp@paho.org